Editing Marco Polo (section)

=== Allegations of exaggeration ===
[[File:Statue of Marco Polo.jpg|thumb|upright|Bust of Marco Polo in the garden of [[Villa Borghese]] in [[Rome]], Italy]]
Some scholars believe that Marco Polo exaggerated his importance in China. The British historian [[David Morgan (historian)|David Morgan]] thought that Polo had likely exaggerated and lied about his status in China,<ref name="Morgan, D page 223" /> while Ronald Latham believed that such exaggerations were embellishments by his ghostwriter [[Rustichello da Pisa]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />

{{Blockquote 
|{{lang|fr|Et meser Marc Pol meisme, celui de cui trate ceste livre, seingneurie ceste cité por trois anz.}}<br />
{{lang|en|And the same Marco Polo, of whom this book relates, ruled this city for three years.}}
|author=[https://edizionicafoscari.unive.it/media/pdf/books/978-88-6969-224-6/978-88-6969-224-6_69TdyXc.pdf ''Le divisement dou monde, CXLII'', ed. Mario Eusebi, p. 162]
}}

This sentence in ''The Book of Marvels'' was interpreted as Marco Polo was "the governor" of the city of "Yangiu" [[Yangzhou]] for three years, and later of [[Hangzhou]]. This claim has raised some controversy. According to [[David Morgan (historian)|David Morgan]]  no Chinese source mentions him as either a friend of the Emperor or as the governor of Yangzhou – indeed no Chinese source mentions Marco Polo at all.<ref name="Morgan, D page 223">Morgan, D.O. "Marco Polo in China—Or Not" 221–225 from ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Volume 6, Issue # 2 July 1996 p. 223.</ref> In the 1960s the German historian [[Herbert Franke (sinologist)|Herbert Franke]] noted that all occurrences of Po-lo or Bolod in Yuan texts were names of people of Mongol or Turkic extraction.<ref name="franke" />

In the 2010s the Chinese scholar [[Peng Hai]] claimed to have identified Marco Polo with a certain "Boluo" ({{Lang-zh|t=孛羅|s=孛罗|p=Bóluō|labels=no}}), a courtier of the emperor, who is mentioned in Volume 119 of the ''[[History of Yuan]]'' ({{zh|p=Yuánshǐ|labels=no}}) commissioned by the succeeding Ming dynasty. The claim arises out of the report that Boluo was arrested in 1274 by an imperial dignitary named Saman ({{zh|t=撒蠻|p=Sāmán|labels=no}}) for walking on the same side of the road as a female courtesan, in contravention of the order for men and women to walk on opposite sides of the road inside the city.<ref>Peng, Hai, 2010, "Makeboluolaihuashishi", Beijing: Zhongguo she hui ke xue chu ban she, {{ISBN|978-7-5004-9221-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite wikisource |title=元史 | trans-title=[[History of Yuan]] |wslink=元史 |chapter=卷119 |publisher=[[Ming dynasty]]|wslanguage=zh}}</ref> According to the ''History of Yuan'', Boluo was released at the request of the emperor himself, and was then transferred to the region of Ningxia, in the northeast of present-day China, in the spring of 1275. The date could correspond to the first mission of which Marco Polo speaks.<ref>Giulio Busi, "Marco Polo. Viaggio ai confini del Medioevo", Collezione Le Scie. Nuova serie, Milano, Mondadori, 2018, {{ISBN|978-88-0470-292-4}}, § "Boluo, il funzionario invisibile"</ref>

If this identification is correct, there is a record about Marco Polo in Chinese sources. These conjectures seem to be supported by the fact that in addition to the imperial dignitary Saman (the one who had arrested the official named "Boluo"), the documents mention his brother, Xiangwei ({{lang-zh|t=相威|p=Xiāngwēi|labels=no}}). According to sources, Saman died shortly after the incident, while Xiangwei was transferred to Yangzhou in 1282–1283. Marco Polo reports that he was moved to Hangzhou the following year, in 1284. It has been supposed that these displacements are due to the intention to avoid further conflicts between the two.<ref name="Busi">Giulio Busi, "Marco Polo. Viaggio ai confini del Medioevo", Collezione Le Scie. Nuova serie, Milano, Mondadori, 2018, {{ISBN|978-88-0470-292-4}}, § "Boluo, il funzionario invisibile</ref>

The sinologist [[Paul Pelliot]] thought that Polo might have served as an officer of the government salt monopoly in Yangzhou, which was a position of some significance that could explain the exaggeration.<ref name="Morgan, D page 223" />

It may seem unlikely that a European could hold a position of power in the Mongolian empire. Some records prove he was not the first nor the only one. In his book, Marco mentions an official named "Mar Sarchis" who probably was a [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christian]] [[bishop]], and he says he founded two Christian churches in the region of "Caigiu". This official is actually mentioned in the local gazette ''Zhishun Zhenjian zhi'' under the name "Ma Xuelijisi" and the qualification of "General of Third Class". In the gazette, it is said Ma Xuelijsi was an assistant supervisor in the province of Zhenjiang for three years, and that during this time he founded two Christian churches.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIR1DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Ma+Xuelijisi%22&pg=PA137|title=Yearbook of Chinese Theology 2018|date=25 October 2018|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-38497-2|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Vogel">{{cite book |author=Hans Ulrich Vogel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydo_9TEmuVQC&pg=PA1 |title=Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues|publisher=  Brill |year= 2012|isbn= 978-90-04-23193-1|page=358}}</ref><ref name="Busi" /> It is a well-documented fact that [[Kublai Khan]] trusted foreigners more than his Chinese subjects in internal affairs.<ref name="Vogel:2">{{cite book |author=Hans Ulrich Vogel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydo_9TEmuVQC&pg=PA1 |title=Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues|publisher=  Brill |year= 2012|isbn= 978-90-04-23193-1|page=69}}</ref><ref name="Busi" />

[[Stephen G. Haw]] challenges this idea that Polo exaggerated his own importance, writing that, "contrary to what has often been said&nbsp;... Marco does not claim any very exalted position for himself in the Yuan empire."<ref name="haw 2006 173">Stephen G. Haw (2006), ''Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan'', London & New York: Routledge, p. 173, {{ISBN|0-415-34850-1}}.</ref> He points out that Polo never claimed to hold high rank, such as a ''[[darughachi]]'', who led a ''[[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]'' – a unit that was normally 10,000 strong. Polo does not even imply that he had led 1,000 personnel. Haw points out that Polo himself appears to state only that he had been an emissary of the [[Khan (title)|khan]], in a position with some esteem. According to Haw, this is a reasonable claim if Polo was, for example, a ''[[keshig]]'' – a member of the imperial guard by the same name, which included as many as 14,000 individuals at the time.<ref name="haw 2006 173" />

Haw explains how the earliest [[manuscript]]s of Polo's accounts provide contradicting information about his role in Yangzhou, with some stating he was just a simple resident, others stating he was a governor, and [[Giovanni Battista Ramusio|Ramusio's manuscript]] claiming he was simply holding that office as a temporary substitute for someone else, yet all the manuscripts concur that he worked as an esteemed emissary for the khan.<ref>Stephen G. Haw (2006), ''Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan'', London & New York: Routledge, pp. 3–4, {{ISBN|0-415-34850-1}}.</ref> 

Another contradictory claim is at chapter 145 when the Book of Marvels states that the three Polos provided the Mongols with technical advice on building [[mangonel]]s during the [[Battle of Xiangyang|Siege of Xiangyang]],

{{Blockquote
|{{lang|fr|Adonc distrent les .II. freres et lor filz meser Marc. "Grant Sire, nos avon avech nos en nostre mesnie homes qe firont tielz mangan qe giteront si grant pieres qe celes de la cité ne poront sofrir mes se renderont maintenant."}}
<br />{{lang|en|Then the two brothers and their son Marc said: "Great Lord, in our entourage we have men who will build such mangonels which launch such great stones, that the inhabitants of the city will not endure it and will immediately surrender."}}
|author=[https://edizionicafoscari.unive.it/media/pdf/books/978-88-6969-224-6/978-88-6969-224-6_69TdyXc.pdf ''Le devisement dou monde'', CXLV, ed. Mario Eusebi, p. 163]}}

Since the siege was over in 1273, before Marco Polo had arrived in China for the first time, the claim cannot be true.<ref name="Morgan, D page 223" /><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-le-moyen-age-2011-2-page-315.htm|title=Pierre Racine, " Marco Polo, marchand ou reporter ? ", Le Moyen Age, vol. cxvii, no 2, 2011, p. 315–344|journal=Le Moyen Age |year=2011 |issue=2 |pages=315–344 |last1=Racine |first1=Pierre |volume=CXVII |doi=10.3917/rma.172.0315 }}</ref>  The Mongol army that besieged Xiangyang did have foreign military engineers, but they were mentioned in Chinese sources as being from [[Baghdad]] and had Arabic names.<ref name="franke" /> In this respect, [[Igor de Rachewiltz]] recalls that the claim that the ''three'' Polo were present at the siege of Xiang-yang is not present in all manuscripts, but Niccolò and Matteo could have made this suggestion. Therefore, this claim seems a subsequent addition to give more credibility to the story.<ref>Marco Polo Went to China, in «Zentralasiatische Studien», vol. 27, 1997, pp. 34–92</ref><ref name="Igor" />