Editing Magic (supernatural) (section)

===Middle Ages===
{{Further|Medieval European magic}}
{{Hermeticism}}
Magic practices such as divination, interpretation of omens, sorcery, and use of charms had been specifically forbidden in Mosaic Law<ref>{{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|18:9-18:14|ESV}}</ref> and condemned in Biblical histories of the kings.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Chronicles|33:1-33:9|ESV}}</ref> Many of these practices were spoken against in the New Testament as well.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13:6-13:12|ESV}}</ref><ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|5:16-5:26|ESV}}</ref>

Some commentators say that in the first century CE, early Christian authors absorbed the [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] concept of magic and incorporated it into their developing [[Christian theology]],{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} and that these Christians retained the already implied Greco-Roman negative stereotypes of the term and extended them by incorporating conceptual patterns borrowed from Jewish thought, in particular the opposition of magic and [[miracle]].{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} Some early Christian authors followed the Greek-Roman thinking by ascribing the origin of magic to the human realm, mainly to [[Zoroaster]] and [[Osthanes]]. The Christian view was that magic was a product of the Babylonians, Persians, or Egyptians.{{sfn|Davies|2012|pp=33–34}} The Christians shared with earlier classical culture the idea that magic was something distinct from proper religion, although drew their distinction between the two in different ways.{{sfn|Bailey|2006|p=8}}

[[File:Isidor von Sevilla.jpeg|thumb|left|A 17th-century depiction of the medieval writer Isidore of Seville, who provided a list of activities he regarded as magical]]
For early Christian writers like [[Augustine of Hippo]], magic did not merely constitute fraudulent and unsanctioned ritual practices, but was the very opposite of religion because it relied upon cooperation from [[demons]], the henchmen of [[Satan]].{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} In this, Christian ideas of magic were closely linked to the Christian category of [[paganism]],{{sfn|Davies|2012|pp=41–42}} and both magic and paganism were regarded as belonging under the broader category of ''superstitio'' ([[superstition]]), another term borrowed from pre-Christian Roman culture.{{sfn|Bailey|2006|p=8}} This Christian emphasis on the inherent immorality and wrongness of magic as something conflicting with good religion was far starker than the approach in the other large [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] religions of the period, Judaism and Islam.{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=72}} For instance, while Christians regarded demons as inherently evil, the [[jinn]]—comparable entities in [[Islamic mythology]]—were perceived as more ambivalent figures by Muslims.{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=72}}

The model of the magician in Christian thought was provided by [[Simon Magus]], (Simon the Magician), a figure who opposed [[Saint Peter]] in both the [[Acts of the Apostles]] and the apocryphal yet influential [[Acts of Peter]].{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=99}} The historian Michael D. Bailey stated that in medieval Europe, magic was a "relatively broad and encompassing category".{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=21}} Christian theologians believed that there were multiple different forms of magic, the majority of which were types of [[divination]], for instance, [[Isidore of Seville]] produced a catalogue of things he regarded as magic in which he listed divination by the four elements i.e. [[geomancy]], [[hydromancy]], [[aeromancy]], and [[pyromancy]], as well as by observation of natural phenomena e.g. the flight of birds and astrology. He also mentioned [[incantation|enchantment]] and ligatures (the medical use of magical objects bound to the patient) as being magical.{{sfn|Kieckhefer|2000|pp=10–11}} Medieval Europe also saw magic come to be associated with the Old Testament figure of [[Solomon]]; various [[grimoire]]s, or books outlining magical practices, were written that claimed to have been written by Solomon, most notably the [[Key of Solomon]].{{sfn|Davies|2012|p=35}}

In early medieval Europe, ''magia'' was a term of condemnation.{{sfn|Flint|1991|p=5}} In medieval Europe, Christians often suspected Muslims and Jews of engaging in magical practices;{{sfnm|1a1=Davies|1y=2012|1p=6|2a1=Bailey|2y=2018|2p=88}} in certain cases, these perceived magical rites—including the [[Blood libel|alleged Jewish sacrifice of Christian children]]—resulted in Christians massacring these religious minorities.{{sfn|Davies|2012|p=6}} Christian groups often also accused other, rival Christian groups such as the [[Hussites]]—which they regarded as [[heresy|heretical]]—of engaging in magical activities.{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=99}}<ref>{{cite book | last1=Johnson | first1=T. | last2=Scribner | first2=R.W. | title=Popular Religion in Germany and Central Europe, 1400-1800 | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=Themes in Focus | year=1996 | isbn=978-1-349-24836-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5FKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 | access-date=2023-04-02 | page=47}}</ref> Medieval Europe also saw the term ''maleficium'' applied to forms of magic that were conducted with the intention of causing harm.{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=21}} The later Middle Ages saw words for these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in various European languages: ''sorcière'' in French, ''Hexe'' in German, ''strega'' in Italian, and ''bruja'' in Spanish.{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=22}} The English term for malevolent practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the earlier [[Old English]] term ''wicce''.{{sfn|Bailey|2018|p=22}}

Ars Magica or magic is a major component and supporting contribution to the belief and practice of spiritual, and in many cases, physical healing throughout the Middle Ages. Emanating from many modern interpretations lies a trail of misconceptions about magic, one of the largest revolving around wickedness or the existence of nefarious beings who practice it. These misinterpretations stem from numerous acts or rituals that have been performed throughout antiquity, and due to their exoticism from the commoner's perspective, the rituals invoked uneasiness and an even stronger sense of dismissal.{{sfn|Flint|1991|pp=4, 12, 406}}{{sfn|Kieckhefer|1994}}

[[File:Sefer raziel segulot.png|thumb|right|An excerpt from [[Sefer Raziel HaMalakh]], featuring various magical [[Sigil (magic)|sigils]] (סגולות ''segulot'' in Hebrew)]]
In the Medieval Jewish view, the separation of the [[Mysticism|mystical]] and magical elements of Kabbalah, dividing it into speculative [[Kabbalah|theological Kabbalah]] (''Kabbalah Iyyunit'') with its meditative traditions, and theurgic practical Kabbalah (''Kabbalah Ma'asit''), had occurred by the beginning of the 14th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Josephy |first1=Marcia Reines |title=Magic & Superstition in the Jewish Tradition: An Exhibition Organized by the Maurice Spertus Museum of Judaica|date=1975 |publisher=Spertus College of Judaica Press|access-date=15 May 2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TPXAAAAMAAJ&q=Magic+%26+Superstition+in+the+Jewish+Tradition|language=en|page=18}}</ref>

One societal force in the Middle Ages more powerful than the singular commoner, the Christian Church, rejected magic as a whole because it was viewed as a means of tampering with the natural world in a supernatural manner associated with the [[Bible|biblical]] verses of Deuteronomy 18:9–12.{{Explain|reason=There were some major examples of magic practiced in the Middle Ages, although not the stereotypical witchcraft type, that the Church did not take action against.|date=May 2023}} Despite the many negative connotations which surround the term magic, there exist many elements that are seen in a divine or holy light.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lindberg|first1=David C.|title=The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450|date=2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7|page=20|edition=2nd}}</ref>

The [[divine right of kings]] in [[England]] was thought to be able to give them "[[Sacredness|sacred]] magic" power to heal thousands of their subjects from sicknesses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |title=A History of Britain 1: 3000 BC-AD 1603 At the Edge of the World? |title-link=A History of Britain (TV series)#DVDs and books |publisher=[[BBC Worldwide]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-563-48714-2 |edition=Paperback 2003 |location=London |pages=193–194 |author-link=Simon Schama}}</ref>

Diversified instruments or rituals used in medieval magic include, but are not limited to: various amulets, talismans, potions, as well as specific chants, dances, and [[prayer]]s. Along with these rituals are the adversely imbued notions of demonic participation which influence them. The idea that magic was devised, taught, and worked by demons would have seemed reasonable to anyone who read the Greek magical papyri or the [[Sepher Ha-Razim|Sefer-ha-Razim]] and found that healing magic appeared alongside rituals for killing people, gaining wealth, or personal advantage, and coercing women into sexual submission.{{sfn|Kieckhefer|1994|p=818}} Archaeology is contributing to a fuller understanding of ritual practices performed in the home, on the body and in monastic and church settings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gilchrist|first1=Roberta|title=Magic for the Dead? The Archaeology of Magic in Later Medieval Burials|journal=Medieval Archaeology|date=1 November 2008|volume=52|issue=1|pages=119–159|doi=10.1179/174581708x335468|s2cid=162339681|issn=0076-6097|url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/3556/1/MED52_05.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514010744/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/3556/1/MED52_05.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-14 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gilchrist|first1=Roberta|title=Medieval Life: Archaeology and the Life Course|date=2012|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|isbn=978-1-84383-722-0|page=xii|edition=Reprint|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3EwHTrRZEsC|access-date=8 March 2017|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Islam and magic|Islamic reaction towards magic]] did not condemn magic in general and distinguished between magic which can heal sickness and [[Demonic possession#Islam|possession]], and sorcery. The former is therefore a special gift from [[God in Islam|God]], while the latter is achieved through help of [[Jinn]] and [[Shaitan|devils]]. [[Ibn al-Nadim]] held that [[exorcist]]s gain their power by their obedience to God, while sorcerers please the devils by acts of disobedience and sacrifices and they in return do him a favor.<ref>{{cite book|last1=El-Zein|first1=Amira|title=Islam, Arabs, and the Intelligent World of the Jinn|date=2009|publisher=Syracuse University Press|location=Syracuse, New York|isbn=978-0-8156-5070-6|page=77}}</ref> According to [[Ibn Arabi]], Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yusuf al-Shubarbuli was able to walk on water due to his piety.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lebling|first1=Robert|title=Legends of the Fire Spirits: Jinn and Genies from Arabia to Zanzibar|date=2010|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-063-3|page=51}}</ref> According to the Quran 2:102, magic was also taught to humans by devils and the angels [[Harut and Marut]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Hossein|last2=Dagli|first2=Caner K.|last3=Dakake|first3=Maria Massi|last4=Lumbard|first4=Joseph E.B.|last5=Rustom|first5=Mohammed|title=The Study Quran; A New Translation and Commentary|date=2015|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-0-06-222762-1|page=25}}</ref>

The influence of Arab Islamic magic in medieval and Renaissance Europe was very notable. Some magic books such as [[Picatrix]] and [[Al Kindi]]'s De Radiis were the basis for much of medieval magic in Europe and for subsequent developments in the Renaissance. Another Arab Muslim author fundamental to the developments of medieval and Renaissance European magic was [[Ahmad al-Buni]], with his books such as the [[Shams al-Ma'arif]] which deal above all with the evocation and invocation of spirits or jinn to control them, obtain powers and make wishes come true.{{sfn|Davies|2009|p=27}} These books are still important to the Islamic world specifically in [[Simiyya]], a doctrine found commonly within [[Sufi]]-[[occult]] traditions.<ref>Eric Geoffroy, ''Introduction to Sufism: The Inner Path of Islam'', World Wisdom, 2010 p. 21</ref>

[[File:Natural Magick by Giambattista della Porta.jpg|thumb|right|Frontispiece of an English translation of ''Natural Magick'' published in London in 1658]]
During the early modern period, the concept of magic underwent a more positive reassessment through the development of the concept of ''[[natural magic|magia naturalis]]'' (natural magic).{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} This was a term introduced and developed by two Italian humanists, [[Marsilio Ficino]] and [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]].{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} For them, ''magia'' was viewed as an elemental force pervading many natural processes,{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} and thus was fundamentally distinct from the mainstream Christian idea of demonic magic.{{sfnm|1a1=Kieckhefer|1y=2000|1p=12|2a1=Hanegraaff|2y=2012|2p=170}} Their ideas influenced an array of later philosophers and writers, among them [[Paracelsus]], [[Giordano Bruno]], [[Johannes Reuchlin]], and [[Johannes Trithemius]].{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=17}} According to the historian [[Richard Kieckhefer]], the concept of ''magia naturalis'' took "firm hold in European culture" during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,{{sfn|Kieckhefer|2000|p=12}} attracting the interest of [[natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] of various theoretical orientations, including [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelians]], [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonists]], and [[Hermeticism|Hermeticists]].{{sfn|Styers|2004|p=35}}

Adherents of this position argued that ''magia'' could appear in both good and bad forms; in 1625, the French librarian [[Gabriel Naudé]] wrote his ''Apology for all the Wise Men Falsely Suspected of Magic'', in which he distinguished "Mosoaicall Magick"—which he claimed came from God and included prophecies, miracles, and [[speaking in tongues]]—from "geotick" magic caused by demons.{{sfn|Davies|2012|pp=35–36}} While the proponents of ''magia naturalis'' insisted that this did not rely on the actions of demons, critics disagreed, arguing that the demons had simply deceived these magicians.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2006b|p=739}} By the seventeenth century the concept of ''magia naturalis'' had moved in increasingly 'naturalistic' directions, with the distinctions between it and science becoming blurred.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2006b|p=738}} The validity of ''magia naturalis'' as a concept for understanding the universe then came under increasing criticism during the [[Age of Enlightenment]] in the eighteenth century.{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=18}}

Despite the attempt to reclaim the term ''magia'' for use in a positive sense, it did not supplant traditional attitudes toward magic in the West, which remained largely negative.{{sfn|Otto|Stausberg|2013|p=18}} At the same time as ''magia naturalis'' was attracting interest and was largely tolerated, Europe saw an active persecution of accused witches believed to be guilty of ''maleficia''.{{sfn|Styers|2004|p=35}} Reflecting the term's continued negative associations, [[Protestantism|Protestants]] often sought to denigrate [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] sacramental and devotional practices as being magical rather than religious.{{sfnm|1a1=Styers|1y=2004|1pp=9, 36–37|2a1=Davies|2y=2012|2p=7}} Many Roman Catholics were concerned by this allegation and for several centuries various Roman Catholic writers devoted attention to arguing that their practices were religious rather than magical.{{sfn|Styers|2004|p=9}} At the same time, Protestants often used the accusation of magic against other Protestant groups which they were in contest with.{{sfn|Styers|2004|p=37}} In this way, the concept of magic was used to prescribe what was appropriate as religious belief and practice.{{sfn|Styers|2004|p=9}}
Similar claims were also being made in the Islamic world during this period. The Arabian cleric [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]]—founder of [[Wahhabism]]—for instance condemned a range of customs and practices such as divination and the veneration of spirits as ''sihr'', which he in turn claimed was a form of ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'', the sin of idolatry.{{sfn|Davies|2012|p=9}}