Editing Landslide (section)

==Landslide monitoring==
The monitoring of landslides is essential for estimating the dangerous situations, making it possible to issue alerts on time, to avoid loses of lives and property, and to have proper planning and reducing measures in place. Currently, there exist different type of techniques aimed to monitor landslides:

=== [[Remote sensing]] techniques ===

* [[Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar|InSAR]] (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar): This remote sensing technique measures ground displacement over time with high precision. It is ideal for large-scale monitoring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=Roberto |last2=Zeng |first2=Qiming |last3=Lopez-Sanchez |first3=Juan M. |last4=Zhao |first4=Chaoying |last5=Li |first5=Zhenhong |last6=Liu |first6=Xiaojie |last7=Navarro-Hernández |first7=María I. |last8=Hu |first8=Liuru |last9=Luo |first9=Jiayin |last10=Díaz |first10=Esteban |last11=Szeibert |first11=William T. |last12=Pastor |first12=José Luis |last13=Riquelme |first13=Adrián |last14=Yu |first14=Chen |last15=Cano |first15=Miguel |title=Advances on the investigation of landslides by space-borne synthetic aperture radar interferometry |journal=Geo-Spatial Information Science |date=2024-05-03 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=602–623 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10095020.2023.2266224 |doi=10.1080/10095020.2023.2266224 |bibcode=2024GSIS...27..602T |issn=1009-5020|hdl=10045/138430 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Casagli |first1=N. |last2=Cigna |first2=F. |last3=Bianchini |first3=S. |last4=Hölbling |first4=D. |last5=Füreder |first5=P. |last6=Righini |first6=G. |last7=Del Conte |first7=S. |last8=Friedl |first8=B. |last9=Schneiderbauer |first9=S. |last10=Iasio |first10=C. |last11=Vlcko |first11=J. |last12=Greif |first12=V. |last13=Proske |first13=H. |last14=Granica |first14=K. |last15=Falco |first15=S. |date=2016-10-01 |title=Landslide mapping and monitoring by using radar and optical remote sensing: Examples from the EC-FP7 project SAFER |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352938516300635 |journal=Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment |volume=4 |pages=92–108 |doi=10.1016/j.rsase.2016.07.001 |bibcode=2016RSASE...4...92C |issn=2352-9385|hdl=2158/1045254 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Lidar|LiDAR]] (Light Detection and Ranging): Provides detailed 3D models of terrain to detect changes over time by comparison of different point clouds acquired over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomás |first1=R. |last2=Abellán |first2=A. |last3=Cano |first3=M. |last4=Riquelme |first4=A. |last5=Tenza-Abril |first5=A. J. |last6=Baeza-Brotons |first6=F. |last7=Saval |first7=J. M. |last8=Jaboyedoff |first8=M. |date=2018-02-01 |title=A multidisciplinary approach for the investigation of a rock spreading on an urban slope |journal=Landslides |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=199–217 |doi=10.1007/s10346-017-0865-0 |bibcode=2018Lands..15..199T |issn=1612-5118|doi-access=free |hdl=10045/73318 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jaboyedoff |first1=Michel |last2=Oppikofer |first2=Thierry |last3=Abellán |first3=Antonio |last4=Derron |first4=Marc-Henri |last5=Loye |first5=Alex |last6=Metzger |first6=Richard |last7=Pedrazzini |first7=Andrea |date=March 2012 |title=Use of LIDAR in landslide investigations: a review |journal=Natural Hazards |language=en |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=5–28 |doi=10.1007/s11069-010-9634-2 |bibcode=2012NatHa..61....5J |issn=0921-030X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Optical satellite imagery: Useful for identifying surface changes, geomorphological features (e.g. cracks and scarps) and mapping landslide-prone areas.<ref name=":7" />
* [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAVs]] (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles): This technique captures high-resolution images and topographic data in inaccessible areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Jianwei |last2=Yuan |first2=Guoqin |last3=Song |first3=Laiyun |last4=Zhang |first4=Hongwen |date=January 2024 |title=Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Landslide Investigation and Monitoring: A Review |journal=Drones |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=30 |doi=10.3390/drones8010030 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024Drone...8...30S |issn=2504-446X}}</ref>
* Thermal imaging: Thermal images enable to detects temperature variations that may indicate water movement or stress in the slope.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cosentino |first1=Antonio |last2=Marmoni |first2=Gian Marco |last3=Fiorucci |first3=Matteo |last4=Mazzanti |first4=Paolo |last5=Scarascia Mugnozza |first5=Gabriele |last6=Esposito |first6=Carlo |date=January 2023 |title=Optical and Thermal Image Processing for Monitoring Rainfall Triggered Shallow Landslides: Insights from Analogue Laboratory Experiments |journal=Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=15 |issue=23 |pages=5577 |doi=10.3390/rs15235577 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023RemS...15.5577C |issn=2072-4292|hdl=11573/1707707 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Ground-based techniques ===

* [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] (Global Positioning System): Tracks ground movements at specific points over time using a constellation of satellites orbiting around the Earth.
* [[Topographic survey]]s: Measures displacements of marked targets on a slope.
* [[Ground-Based Radar Prototype|Ground-based radar]] (GB-SAR): Continuously monitors surface deformation using a SAR sensor and detects movement in real-time. It follows the same principle than InSAR.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Noferini |first1=Linhsia |last2=Pieraccini |first2=Massimiliano |last3=Mecatti |first3=Daniele |last4=Macaluso |first4=Giovanni |last5=Atzeni |first5=Carlo |last6=Mantovani |first6=Matteo |last7=Marcato |first7=Gianluca |last8=Pasuto |first8=Alessandro |last9=Silvano |first9=Sandro |last10=Tagliavini |first10=Fabrizio |date=2007-12-07 |title=Using GB-SAR technique to monitor slow moving landslide |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0013795207001822 |journal=Engineering Geology |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=88–98 |doi=10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.09.002 |bibcode=2007EngGe..95...88N |issn=0013-7952}}</ref>

=== Geotechnical instrumentation ===

* [[Piezometers]]: Monitors groundwater levels and pore water pressure, which are critical triggers for landslides.
* [[Load cell]]s: Measures stress changes in retaining structures or anchors.
* [[Tiltmeter]]s: Detects small angular changes in the slope surface or retaining walls. 
* [[Extensometer]]s: Measures displacement along cracks or tension zones.
* [[Inclinometer]]s: Detects subsurface movements by monitoring changes in the inclination of a borehole.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bordoni |first1=Massimiliano |last2=Vivaldi |first2=Valerio |last3=Bonì |first3=Roberta |last4=Spanò |first4=Simone |last5=Tararbra |first5=Mauro |last6=Lanteri |first6=Luca |last7=Parnigoni |first7=Matteo |last8=Grossi |first8=Alessandra |last9=Figini |first9=Silvia |last10=Meisina |first10=Claudia |date=2023-01-01 |title=A methodology for the analysis of continuous time-series of automatic inclinometers for slow-moving landslides monitoring in Piemonte region, northern Italy |journal=Natural Hazards |language=en |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=1115–1142 |doi=10.1007/s11069-022-05586-3 |bibcode=2023NatHa.115.1115B |issn=1573-0840|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Seismic techniques ===
•Geophones and accelerometers: Detect seismic vibrations or movements that might indicate slope instability.