Editing Intellectual property (section)

==Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement==
{{Main|Intellectual property infringement}}

Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action. As of 2011, trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a $600&nbsp;billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5{{nbnd}}7% of global trade.<ref name="Bitton">Miriam Bitton (2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121010073552/http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures] The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67–117</ref> During the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], IP has been a consideration in punishment of the aggressor through trade sanctions,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ranjan |first=Prabhash |date=17 July 2022 |title=Russia-Ukraine War and WTO's National Security Exception |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00157325221114586 |journal=Foreign Trade Review |volume=58 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=246–258 |doi=10.1177/00157325221114586 |s2cid=250654113 |issn=0015-7325}}</ref> has been proposed as a method to prevent future wars of aggression involving [[nuclear weapon]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pearce |first=Joshua M. |date=2022 |title=Leveraging Intellectual Property to Prevent Nuclear War |journal=Safety |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=55 |doi=10.3390/safety8030055 |issn=2313-576X|doi-access=free }}</ref> and has caused concern about stifling innovation by keeping patent information secret.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Matthews |first1=Duncan |last2=Ostapenko |first2=Hanna |date=31 January 2023 |title=The War in Ukraine Raises Questions About Patents for Secret Inventions |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4344212 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY|doi=10.2139/ssrn.4344212 |ssrn=4344212 |s2cid=256534179 |periodical=Queen Mary Law Research Paper}}</ref>

===Patent infringement===
{{Main|Patent infringement|}}

Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder, i.e. from the patent owner. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection<ref>{{EPC Article|69}}</ref> is defined in the [[patent claim|claims]] of the granted patent. There is [[safe harbor (law)|safe harbor]] in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or to gather data to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug.<ref>Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130207023621/http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?] ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004</ref> In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).<ref>Matthew L. Cutler (2008) [http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF |date=22 September 2013 }}</ref>

===Copyright infringement===
{{Main|Copyright infringement}}

Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a [[creative work|work]], or to make [[derivative work]]s, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy".<ref name="Panethiere_p2">{{cite web|title=The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development|url=http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf|last=Panethiere|first=Darrell|date=July–September 2005|website=portal.unesco|publisher=UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin|page=2|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080816063513/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf|archive-date=16 August 2008}}</ref> In the United States, while copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title=Copyright Basics |url=https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ01.pdf |website=U.S. Copyright Office}}</ref> Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder.<ref name=Xuan_p211>{{cite book|last=Correa|first=Carlos Maria|author2=Li, Xuan|title=Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2009|page=211|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bN3o1uwpKF4C&q=copyright+infringement+international+acta|isbn=978-1-84844-663-2}}</ref> The [[Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement|ACTA trade agreement]], signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to actively police for infringement.<ref name=Bitton /><ref name=Musa>Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 [http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v24/24HarvJLTech469.pdf The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement] Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469–518</ref> There are [[limitations and exceptions to copyright]], allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the [[fair use]] and [[fair dealing]] doctrine.

===Trademark infringement===
{{Main|Trademark infringement}}

Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or [[confusing similarity|confusingly similar]] to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.<ref name=Bitton /><ref name=Musa />

===Trade secret misappropriation===
{{Main|Trade secret#Misappropriation}}

Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the [[Uniform Trade Secrets Act]]. The United States also has federal law in the form of the [[Economic Espionage Act of 1996]] ({{usc|18|1831|1839}}), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, {{uscsub|18|1831|a}}, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, {{usc|18|1832}}, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses. In [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[common law]] jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an [[Equity (law)|equitable]] right rather than a [[property]] right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}