Editing History of Sudan (section)

===Independence and the First Civil War===
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[[File: Sudan independence 2.png|200px|thumb|Sudan's flag raised at independence ceremony by the Prime Minister [[Isma'il al-Azhari]] and opposition leader [[Muhammad Ahmad Mahgoub|Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub]] on 1 January 1956]]
{{main|Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|First Sudanese Civil War|Ansar–Khatmiyya rivalry}}

On 12 February 1953, the [[United Kingdom]] and Egypt concluded an agreement providing for Sudanese self-government and self-determination.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Sudan/The-Sudan-under-the-Anglo-Egyptian-Condominium The Sudan under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium]</ref> The transitional period toward independence began with the inauguration of the first parliament in 1954. On 18 August 1955 an army revolt in the southern Sudanese city of [[Torit]] broke out,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-celebrates-Torit,28325 | title=South Sudan celebrates Torit "revolution" day of 1955 - Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan | access-date=6 May 2012 | archive-date=13 July 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713213344/http://www.sudantribune.com/South-Sudan-celebrates-Torit,28325 | url-status=live }}</ref> which although quickly suppressed, led to a low level guerrilla insurgency by former southern rebels, and marked the beginning of the [[First Sudanese Civil War]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/08/22/80778473.pdf | work=The New York Times | title=Egypt Bids Britain Act In Sudan Revolt | date=22 August 1955 | access-date=15 June 2018 | archive-date=20 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173341/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/08/22/80778473.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false | url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 December 1955 the Premier of Sudan [[Ismail al-Azhari]] announced that Sudan would unilaterally declare independence in four days' time.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F60F1EFD3555127B93C4A81789D95F418585F9 | work=The New York Times | first=London | last=Dispatch | title=SUDAN 'FREEDOM' SET FOR MONDAY; Premier Vows to Declare End to British-Egyptian Rule -- Step Is Called Illegal | date=16 December 1955 | access-date=8 February 2017 | archive-date=20 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173536/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/12/16/81883805.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false | url-status=live }}</ref> On 19 December 1955 the Sudanese parliament, unilaterally and unanimously, declared Sudan's independence.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F20712F93C54127B93C2AB1789D95F418585F9 | work=The New York Times | first=London | last=Dispatch | title=Sudan Lower House Votes Independence Declaration; FREEDOM ASKED BY SUDAN HOUSE | date=20 December 1955 | access-date=8 February 2017 | archive-date=20 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020173531/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/12/20/81917481.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false | url-status=live }}</ref> The British and Egyptian governments recognized the independence of Sudan on 1 January 1956.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Guy Arnold |title=Africa: A Modern History |date=3 November 2016 |publisher=Atlantic Books |isbn=9781786490377 |pages=The Sudan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1E-DAAAQBAJ&dq=The+British+and+Egyptian+governments+recognized+the+independence+of+Sudan+on+1+January+1956.&pg=PT97 |access-date=20 April 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512151134/https://books.google.com/books?id=w1E-DAAAQBAJ&dq=The+British+and+Egyptian+governments+recognized+the+independence+of+Sudan+on+1+January+1956.&pg=PT97 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[United States]] was among the first foreign powers to recognize the new state. However, the [[Arab]]-led Khartoum government ignored their promises to southerners to create a [[Federal republic|federal]] system, which led to a mutiny by southern army officers that sparked seventeen years of civil war (1955–1972). In the early period of the war, hundreds of northern bureaucrats, teachers, and other officials, serving in the south were massacred.

The [[National Unionist Party]] (NUP), under Prime Minister [[Ismail al-Azhari]], dominated the first cabinet, which was soon replaced by a coalition of conservative political forces. In 1958, following a period of economic difficulties and political manoeuvring that paralysed public administration, Chief of Staff Major General [[Ibrahim Abboud]] overthrew the parliamentary government in a bloodless [[1958 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état]].<ref name="Dict">{{cite book |last1=Voll |first1=John Obert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAs7lGNkVBkC&q=Abdallah+Khalil&pg=PA347 |title=Historical dictionary of the Sudan |last2=Fluehr-Lobban |first2=Carolyn |last3=Lobban |first3=Richard |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780810825475 |page=245 |access-date=20 October 2023 |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020181650/https://books.google.com/books?id=WAs7lGNkVBkC&q=Abdallah+Khalil&pg=PA347#v=snippet&q=Abdallah%20Khalil&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gen. Abboud did not carry out his promises to return Sudan to civilian government, however, and popular resentment against army rule led to a wave of riots and strikes in late [[October 1964 Revolution|October 1964]] that forced the military to relinquish power.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SudanTribune |date=2 January 2013 |title=New Year's Day raids kill 4 in Jonglei |url=https://sudantribune.com/article44274/ |access-date=20 October 2023 |website=Sudan Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref>

The Abboud regime was followed by a provisional government until parliamentary elections in April 1965 led to a coalition government of the Umma and National Unionist Parties under Prime Minister [[Muhammad Ahmad Mahjoub]]. Between 1966 and 1969, Sudan had a series of governments that proved unable either to agree on a permanent constitution or to cope with problems of [[Political faction|factionalism]], economic stagnation, and ethnic dissidence. The succession of early post-independence governments were dominated by [[Arab Muslims]] who viewed Sudan as a Muslim Arab state. Indeed, the Umma/NUP proposed [[1968 Sudanese constitution|1968 constitution]] was arguably Sudan's first Islamic-oriented constitution.

====The Nimeiry Era====
{{main|Democratic Republic of the Sudan}}
Dissatisfaction culminated in a [[1969 Sudanese coup d'état|coup d'état on 25 May 1969]]. The coup leader, Col. [[Gaafar Nimeiry]], became prime minister, and the new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties.<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of the Sudan |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-8108-4100-2 |edition=3rd |page=xlviii}}</ref> Disputes between [[Marxist]] and non-Marxist elements within the ruling military coalition resulted in [[1971 Sudanese coup d'état|a briefly successful coup in July 1971]], led by the [[Sudanese Communist Party]]. Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power.<ref name="Korn 87">{{cite book |last=Korn |first=David A. |title=Assassination in Khartoum |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1993 |page=87}}</ref>

In 1972, the [[Addis Ababa Agreement (1972)|Addis Ababa Agreement]] led to a cessation of the north–south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to a ten years hiatus in the civil war.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://riftvalley.net/publication/we-have-lived-too-long-be-deceived |title=We Have Lived Too Long to Be Deceived: South Sudanese discuss the lessons of historic peace agreements |date=2015 |publisher=Rift Valley Institute |editor-last=Juba University |editor-first=Rift Valley Institute |location=London, UK |access-date=20 October 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408234111/https://riftvalley.net/publication/we-have-lived-too-long-be-deceived |url-status=live }}</ref>

Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the Sudanese government became more pro-Western, and made plans to export food and [[cash crop]]s. However, commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) negotiated a [[Structural Adjustment Program]] with the government. This further promoted the mechanized export agriculture sector. This caused great economic problems for the pastoralists of Sudan.

In 1976, the Ansar mounted a bloody but [[1976 Sudanese coup attempt|unsuccessful coup attempt]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Al-Shaqlini |first=Abdullah |date=27 July 2018 |title=نظرة جهاز الأمن لحركة 2 يوليو 1976 .. بقلم: عبدالله الشقليني |trans-title=The Security Apparatus' View of the July 2, 1976 Movement |url=https://sudanile.com/%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%ac%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%b2-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d9%85%d9%86-%d9%84%d8%ad%d8%b1%d9%83%d8%a9-2-%d9%8a%d9%88%d9%84%d9%8a%d9%88-1976-%d8%a8%d9%82%d9%84%d9%85-%d8%b9%d8%a8%d8%af%d8%a7/ |access-date=25 July 2023 |website=سودانايل |language=ar |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725194615/https://sudanile.com/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9-2-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88-1976-%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 1977, President Nimeiry met with Ansar leader [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]], opening the way for [[National Reconciliation (Sudan)|reconciliation]]. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, and in August a general amnesty was announced for all opponents of Nimeiry's government.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Sudan - National Reconciliation |url=https://countrystudies.us/sudan/26.htm |access-date=28 August 2023 |website=countrystudies.us |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529153009/https://countrystudies.us/sudan/26.htm |url-status=live }}{{PD-notice}}</ref>

====Arms suppliers====
Sudan relied on a variety of countries for its arms supplies. Since independence the army had been trained and supplied by the British, but relations were cut off after the Arab-Israel [[Six-Day War]] in 1967. At this time relations with the US and [[West Germany]] were also cut off. From 1968 to 1971, the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Eastern Bloc]] nations sold large numbers of weapons and provided technical assistance and training to Sudan. At this time the army grew in manpower from 18,000 to roughly 60,000 men. Large numbers of [[tank]]s, [[aircraft]], and [[artillery]] were acquired at this time, and they dominated the army until the late 1980s. Relations cooled between the two sides after the coup in 1971, and the Khartoum government sought to diversify its suppliers. Egypt was the most important military partner in the 1970s, providing [[missile]]s, personnel carriers, and other military hardware.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Western countries began supplying Sudan again in the mid-1970s. The United States began selling Sudan a great deal of equipment around 1976. Military sales peaked in 1982 at US$101 million. The alliance with the United States was strengthened under the administration of [[Ronald Reagan]]. American aid increased from $5 million in 1979 to $200 million in 1983 and then to $254 million in 1985, mainly for military programs. Sudan thus became the second largest recipient of US aid to Africa (after Egypt). The construction of four air bases to house Rapid Deployment Force units and a powerful listening station for the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] near [[Port Sudan]] was decided.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gresh |first=Alain |date=1 October 1985 |title=Le Soudan après la dictature |url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833 |access-date=20 April 2022 |website=Le Monde diplomatique |language=fr |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016013821/https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1985/10/GRESH/38833 |url-status=live }}</ref>