Editing Guru (section)

==In Western culture==
As an alternative to established religions in the West, some people in Europe and the US looked to spiritual guides and gurus from India and other countries. Gurus from many denominations traveled to Western Europe and the US and established followings.

In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the US. According to the American sociologist [[David G. Bromley]] this was partially due to the repeal of the [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the US.<ref name="bromley1989">[[David G. Bromley|Bromley, David G.]], Ph.D. & [[Anson Shupe]], Ph.D., ''Public Reaction against New Religious Movements'' article that appeared in ''Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association'', edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) {{ISBN|0-89042-212-5}}</ref> According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values.<ref name="nugteren1997">[[Nugteren, Albertina (Tineke)]] Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the [[Universiteit van Tilburg|university of Tilburg]]) "Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism", article that appeared at a 1997 [[CESNUR]] conference and that was published in the book ''New Religions in a Postmodern World'' edited by [[Mikael Rothstein]] and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions [[Aarhus University]] press, (2003) {{ISBN|87-7288-748-6}}</ref>

In the [[Western world]], the term is sometimes used in a derogatory way to refer to individuals who have allegedly exploited their followers' naiveté, particularly in certain [[cults]] or groups in the fields of [[hippie]], [[new religious movement]]s, [[self-help]], and [[tantra]].<ref name="Forsthoefel and Humes">{{cite journal |last1=Gressett |first1=Michael J. |title=Gurus in America |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor1-first=Thomas A. |editor2-last=Humes |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=November 2006 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=842–844 |doi=10.1017/S0021911806001872}}</ref>

According to the professor in [[sociology]] [[Stephen A. Kent]] at the [[University of Alberta]] and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in the 1970s young people including [[hippie]]s turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get ''high'' without drugs.<ref name="kranenborg1974">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) ''Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur'' (En: [[Self-realization]]: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture'', published by Kampen Kok (1974)''</ref><ref name="kent2001">[[Stephen A. Kent|Kent, Stephen A.]] Dr. ''From slogans to mantras: social protest and [[religious conversion]] in the late [[Vietnam War|Vietnam war]] era'' [[Syracuse University]] press {{ISBN|0-8156-2923-0}} (2001)</ref> According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the US then, was because some anti-[[Vietnam War]] [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|protesters]] and political activists became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means, and as an alternative turned to religious means.<ref name="kent2001" /> One example of such group was the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] movement (ISKCON) founded by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] in 1966, many of whose followers voluntarily accepted the demanding lifestyle of [[bhakti yoga]] on a full-time basis, in stark contrast to much of the popular culture of the time.{{refn|"Devotees don't have such an easy time. They who choose to live in the temples – now a very small minority -chant the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]] mantra 1,728 time a day. […] Those living in an ashram – far fewer than in the 1970s – have to get up at 4am for worship. All members have to give up meat, fish and eggs; alcohol, tobacco, drugs, tea and coffee; gambling, sports, games and novels; and sex except for procreation with marriage […] It's a demanding lifestyle. Outsiders may wonder why people join."<ref>Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions 2001 UK, Cassell & Co. {{ISBN|0-304-35592-5}} entry [[ISKCON]] page 287,288</ref>|group=Note}}

Some gurus and the groups they lead attract opposition from the [[Anti-cult movement|Anti-Cult Movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Anti-Cult Movement {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/anti-cult-movement|access-date=2020-09-08|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref> According to Kranenborg (1984), [[Jesus Christ]] fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.<ref name="kranenborg1984">Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) {{ISBN|90-239-0809-0}} pp 93-99</ref>

Environmental activists are sometimes called "gurus" or "prophets" for embodying a moral or spiritual authority and gathering followers. Examples of environmental gurus are [[John Muir]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Aldo Leopold]], [[George Perkins Marsh]], and [[David Attenborough]]. Abidin et al. wrote that environmental gurus "merge the boundaries" between spiritual and scientific authority.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abidin|first1=Crystal|last2=Brockington|first2=Dan|last3=Goodman|first3=Michael K.|last4=Mostafanezhad|first4=Mary|last5=Richey|first5=Lisa Ann|date=2020-10-17|title=The Tropes of Celebrity Environmentalism|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|language=en|volume=45|issue=1|pages=387–410|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-081703|doi-access=free|issn=1543-5938|url=https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/poncom/2020/3139ef098559/The_Tropes_of_Celebrity.pdf}}</ref>

=== Viewpoints ===
Gurus and the [[Guru-shishya tradition]] have been criticized and assessed by secular scholars, [[theology|theologians]], [[anti-cult movement|anti-cultists]], [[Scientific skepticism|skeptics]], and religious philosophers.

[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the leadership of the [[Theosophical Society]] in the early part of the 20th century, publicly renounced this role in 1929 while also denouncing the concept of gurus, spiritual leaders, and teachers, advocating instead the unmediated and direct investigation of [[reality]].<ref>Jiddu, Krishnamurti (September 1929). [http://www.jkrishnamurti.org/about-krishnamurti/dissolution-speech.php "The Dissolution of the Order of the Star: A Statement by J. Krishnamurti"]. ''International Star Bulletin'' '''2''' [Volumes not numbered in original] (2) [Issues renumbered starting August 1929]: 28-34. ([[Eerde (Ommen)|Eerde]]: Star Publishing Trust). {{OCLC|34693176}}. J.Krishnamurti Online. Retrieved 2010-08-24.</ref>

[[U. G. Krishnamurti]], [no relation to Jiddu], sometimes characterized as a spiritual [[anarchist]], denied both the value of gurus and the existence of any related worthwhile teaching.<ref>Uppaluri Gopala (U. G.) Krishnamurti (2002) (Revised ed.) [Originally published 1982. [[Goa, India]]: Dinesh Vaghela Cemetile]. ''[[s:The Mystique of Enlightenment/Part One|The Mystique of Enlightenment: The Radical Ideas of U.G. Krishnamurti]]''. Arms, Rodney ed. Sentient Publications. [[Paperback]]. p. 2. {{ISBN|0-9710786-1-0}}. Wikisource. Retrieved 2010-08-28.</ref>

Dr. [[David C. Lane]] proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, ''Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical''. One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following [[Ockham's razor]] and by using [[common sense]], and, should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.<ref name="lane1984">{{cite book |author-link=David C. Lane |last=Lane |first=David C. |chapter-url=http://geocities.com/eckcult/cultexpose/crucible.html |chapter=Chapter 12: The Spiritual Crucible |title=Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical |year=1994 |publisher=Garland Pub. |isbn=978-0815312758|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027111139/http://geocities.com/eckcult/cultexpose/crucible.html |archive-date=2009-10-27 }}</ref>

Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern tradition]] in Western society, [[Indologist]] [[Georg Feuerstein]] writes in the chapter ''Understanding the Guru'' in his book ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice'': "The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. [...] Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing".<ref name="feuerstein2003">[[Georg Feusterstein|Feuerstein, Georg]] Dr. ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice'', Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) {{ISBN|1-57062-928-5}}</ref> In his ''Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga'' (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of ''yoga'' to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.<ref name="feuerstein1990" />

A British professor of psychiatry, [[Anthony Storr]], states in his book, ''Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus'', that he confines the word guru (translated by him as "revered teacher") to persons who have "special knowledge" who tell, referring to their special knowledge, how other people should lead their lives. He argues that gurus share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of [[schizophrenia]]. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, [[Paranoia|paranoid]], [[wikt:eloquent|eloquent]], or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to [[Eileen Barker|Eileen Barker's checklist]] to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of [[psychosis]] to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr notes that gurus generalize their experience to all people. Some of them believe that all humanity should accept their vision, while others teach that when the end of the world comes, only their followers will be saved, and the rest of the people will remain unredeemed. According to him, this ″apparently arrogant assumption″ is closely related and other characteristics of various gurus. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Gurdjieff]], [[Rudolf Steiner]], [[Carl Jung]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Jim Jones]] and [[David Koresh]].<ref name="storr1996">{{Cite book |last=Storr |first=Anthony |title=Feet of Clay; Saints, Sinners, and Madmen: A Study of Gurus |publisher=Free Press |location=New York |year=1996 |isbn=0-684-82818-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/feetofclaysaints00stor }}</ref> 

[[Rob Preece]], a [[psychotherapist]] and a practicing Buddhist, writes in ''The Noble Imperfection'' that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of ''naiveté'' amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of [[transference]] to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves." In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype".<ref name="ref_preece">Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in ''The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life'', Mudras Publications</ref>

The psychiatrist [[Alexander Deutsch]] performed a long-term observation of a small [[cult]], called ''The Family'' (not to be confused with [[Family International]]), founded by an American guru called ''Baba'' or ''Jeff'' in [[New York (state)|New York]] in 1972, who showed increasingly [[schizophrenic]] behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly [[Jew]]ish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as ''holy madness'', and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author.<ref name="deutsch1975">Deutsch, Alexander [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] ''Observations on a sidewalk ashram'' Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175</ref><ref name="deutsch1980">Deutsch, Alexander M.D. ''Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective'' American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.</ref>

[[Jan van der Lans]] (1933–2002), a professor of the [[psychology of religion]] at the [[Radboud University Nijmegen|Catholic University of Nijmegen]], wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands-based [[KSGV|Catholic Study Center for Mental Health]], about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false [[mysticism]]. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes is often lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical [[personality cult]].{{refn|"Wat [[Jan van der Lans|Van der Lans]] hier signaleert, is het gevaar dat de goeroe een instantie van absolute overgave en totale overdracht wordt. De leerling krijgt de gelegenheid om zijn grootheidsfantasieën op de goeroe te projecteren, zonder dat de goeroe daartegen als kritische instantie kan optreden. Het lijkt er zelfs vaak eerder op dat de goeroe in woord, beeld en geschrift juist geneigd is deze onkritische houding te stimuleren. Dit geldt zeker ook voor goeroe Maharaji, maar het heeft zich -gewild en ongewild ook voorgedaan bij Anandamurti en Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. [..] De vergoddelijking van de goeroe is 'een traditioneel element in de Oosterse spiritualiteit, maar, losgemaakt, uit dit cultuurmilieu en overgenomen door Westerse mensen, gaat het onderscheid vaak verloren tussen de persoon van de goeroe en dat wat hij symboliseert en verwordt tot een kritiekloze persoonlijkheidsverheerlijking' (Van der Lans 1981b, 108)"<ref name="lans1981">[http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/obits/vanderlans.html Lans, Jan van der Dr.] (Dutch language) [http://www.ksgv.nl/2-18.html ''Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050114094319/http://www.ksgv.nl/2-18.html |date=2005-01-14 }}, written upon request for the [http://www.ksgv.nl/KSGV_English.html KSGV] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050208164006/http://www.ksgv.nl/KSGV_English.html |date=2005-02-08 }} published by Ambo, Baarn, 1981 {{ISBN|90-263-0521-4}}</ref><ref>[[Paul Schnabel|Schnabel, Paul]] Dr. (Dutch language) Between stigma and charisma: new religious movements and mental health Erasmus university Rotterdam, Faculty of Medicine, Ph.D. thesis, {{ISBN|90-6001-746-3}} (Deventer, Van Loghum Slaterus, 1982) Chapter V, page 142</ref>|group=Note}}

In their 1993 book, ''[[The Guru Papers]]'', authors Diana Alstad and Joel Kramer reject the [[Guru-shishya tradition|guru-disciple tradition]] because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of [[surrender (religion)|surrender]] to him. Alstad and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be [[Hypocrisy|hypocrites]] because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.<ref name="kramer1993">Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad ''The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power'' (1993) {{ISBN|1-883319-00-5}}</ref>

According to the journalist Sacha Kester, in a 2003 article in the Dutch newspaper ''[[De Volkskrant]]'', finding a guru is a precarious matter, pointing to the many holy men in India and the case of [[Sathya Sai Baba]] whom Kester considers a swindler. In this article he also quotes the book ''Karma Cola'' describing that in this book a German economist tells author [[Gita Mehta]], "It is my opinion that quality control has to be introduced for gurus. Many of my friends have become crazy in India". She describes a comment by Suranya Chakraverti who said that some Westerners do not believe in spirituality and ridicule a true guru. Other westerners, Chakraverti said, on the other hand believe in spirituality but tend to put faith in a guru who is a swindler.<ref>Kester, Sacha "Ticket naar Nirvana"/"Ticket to Nirvana", article in the Dutch Newspaper [[De Volkskrant]] 7 January 2003</ref>