Editing Golden eagle (section)

== Activity and movements ==
[[File:Aquila chrysaetos La Canada 2012-01-14.jpg|thumb|right|In [[Spain]], golden eagles such as this one in the [[Province of Ávila]] are sedentary.]]
Despite the dramatic ways in which they attain food and interact with raptors of their own and other species, the daily life of golden eagles is often rather uneventful. In [[Idaho]], adult male golden eagles were observed to sit awake on a perch for an average of 78% of daylight, whereas adult females sat on nest or perched for an average of 85% of the day.<ref name= Collopy2>{{cite journal |last1=Collopy |first1=M.W. |first2=T.C. Jr. |last2=Edwards |title=Territory size, activity budget, and role of undulating flight in nesting Golden Eagles |journal=Journal of Field Ornithology |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=43–51 |year=1989 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v060n01/p0043-p0051.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v060n01/p0043-p0051.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> During the peak of summer in [[Utah]], hunting and territorial flights occurred mostly between 9:00 and 11:00 am and 4:00 and 6:00 pm, with the remaining 15 or so hours of daylight spent perching or resting.<ref name= Leslie/> Golden Eagles visit water sources for drinking, bathing, and preening, particularly during summer months.<ref name="UtahLifeMag">{{cite news |last1=Fixsen |first1=Rachel |title=Eye on the Sky |publisher=Utah Life Magazine |date=Spring 2024}}</ref><ref name="Finlayson2021Water">{{cite journal |last1=Finlayson |first1=Danielle K |title=Investigating the Influence of Available Drinking Water on Wildlife in Utah's West Desert |journal=BYU ScholarsArchive: Theses and Dissertations. |date=9 December 2021 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/9739/ |access-date=14 July 2024}}</ref> When conditions are heavily [[Anticyclone|anticyclonic]], there is less soaring during the day.<ref name= Watson/> During winter in Scotland, golden eagles soar frequently in order to scan the environment for carrion.<ref name= Watson/> In the more wooded environments of Norway during autumn and winter, much less aerial activity is reported, since the eagles tend to avoid detection by actively contour-hunting rather than looking for carrion.<ref name= Gunnar>{{cite journal |author=Bergo, G. |title=Territorial behaviour of Golden Eagles in western Norway |journal=British Birds |volume=80 |issue=8 |pages=361–376 |year=1987 |url=http://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V80/V80_N08/V80_N08_P361_376_A086.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V80/V80_N08/V80_N08_P361_376_A086.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Golden eagles are believed to sleep through much of the night. Although usually highly solitary outside of the bond between breeding pairs, exceptionally cold weather in winter may cause eagles to put their usual guard down and perch together. The largest known congregation of golden eagles was observed on an extremely cold winter's night in eastern Idaho when 124 individuals were observed perched closely along a line of 85 power poles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Craig, T.H.|author2= Craig, E.H. |title=A large concentration of roosting Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho |journal=Auk |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=610–3 |year=1984 |jstor=4086618|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v101n03/p0610-p0613.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v101n03/p0610-p0613.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi= 10.1093/auk/101.3.610 }}</ref>

=== Migration ===
Most populations of golden eagles are sedentary, but the species is actually a [[Bird migration|partial migrant]]. Golden eagles are very hardy species, being well adapted to cold climates, however they cannot abide declining available food sources in the northern stretches of their range. Eagles raised at latitudes greater than 60° N are usually migratory, though a short migration may be untaken by those who breed or hatch at about 50° N.<ref name= McIntyre>{{cite journal |author=McIntyre, C.L.|author2= Douglas, D.C.|author3= Collopy, M.W. |title=Movements of golden eagles (''Aquila chrysaetos'') from interior Alaska during their first year of independence |journal=Auk |volume=125 |issue=1 |pages=214–224 |year=2008 |doi=10.1525/auk.2008.125.1.214 |s2cid= 55922914|doi-access=free }}</ref> During migration, they often use soaring-gliding flight, rather than powered flight.<ref name= McIntyre/> In [[Finland]], most banded juveniles move between {{convert|1000|and|2000|km|mi|abbr=on}} due south, whereas adults stay locally through winter. Further east, conditions are too harsh for even wintering territorial adults.<ref name= Watson/> Golden eagles that breed from the [[Kola peninsula]] to [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug|Anadyr]] in the [[Russian Far East]] migrate south to winter on the Russian and [[Mongolia]]n steppes, and the [[North China Plain]]s. The flat, relatively open landscapes in these regions hold relatively few resident breeding golden eagles.<ref name= Dementiev>Dementiev, G.P. & Gladkov, N.A. (1966). ''Birds of the Soviet Union, Vol. 1''. Israel Programme of Scientific Translations, Jerusalem.</ref> Similarly the entire population of golden eagles from northern and central Alaska and northern Canada migrates south. At [[Mount Lorette]] in [[Alberta]], approximately 4,000 golden eagles may pass during the fall, the largest recorded migration of golden eagles on earth.<ref name= Sherrington>{{cite journal|author=Sherrington, P.|year=1993|title=Golden Eagle migration the Front Ranges of the Alberta Rocky Mountains|journal= Birders Journal|volume= 2|pages= 195–204}}</ref> Here the mountain ranges are relatively moderate and consistent, thus being reliable for thermals and updrafts which made long-distance migrating feasible.<ref name= Sherrington/> Birds hatched in [[Denali National Park]] in [[Alaska]] traveled from {{convert|818|to|4815|km|mi|abbr=on}} to their winter ranges in western North America.<ref name= McIntyre/> These western migrants may winter anywhere from southern [[Alberta]] and [[Montana]] to [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]] and from inland [[California]] to [[Nebraska]]. Adults who bred in northeastern [[Hudson Bay]] area of [[Canada]] reached their wintering grounds, which range from central [[Michigan]] to southern [[Pennsylvania]] to northeastern [[Alabama]], in 26 to 40 days, with arrival dates from November to early December.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Brodeur, S.|author2= Décarie, R.|author3= Bird, D.M.|author4= Fuller, M. |title=Complete migration cycle of Golden Eagles breeding in northern Quebec|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v098n02/p0293-p0299.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v098n02/p0293-p0299.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Condor |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=293–9 |year=1996 |jstor=1369147 |doi=10.2307/1369147|bibcode= 1996Condo..98..293B}}</ref> The departure dates from wintering grounds are variable. In southwestern Canada, they leave their wintering grounds by 6 April to 8 May (the mean being 21 April); in southwestern Idaho, wintering birds leave from 20 March to 13 April (mean of 29 March); and in the [[Southwestern United States]], wintering birds may depart by early March.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= McIntyre/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Boeker, E.L.|author2= Ray, T.D. |title=Golden Eagle population studies in the Southwest |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v073n04/p0463-p0467.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v073n04/p0463-p0467.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Condor |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=463–7 |year=1971 |jstor=1366668 |doi=10.2307/1366668}}</ref> Elsewhere in the species' breeding range, golden eagles (i.e., those who breed in the contiguous Western United States, all of Europe but for Northern Scandinavia, North Africa and all of Asia but for Northern Russia) are non-migratory and tend to remain within striking distance of their breeding territories throughout the year.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> In Scotland, among all recovered, banded golden eagles (36 out of 1000, the rest mostly died or disappeared) the average distance between ringing and recovery was {{convert|44|km|mi|abbr=on}}, averaging {{convert|63|km|mi|abbr=on}} in juveniles and {{convert|36|km|mi|abbr=on}} in older birds.<ref name= Watson/> In the dry [[Southwestern United States]], golden eagles tend to move to higher elevations once the breeding season is complete.<ref name= Palmer/> In [[North Africa]], populations breeding at lower latitudes, like Morocco, are mostly sedentary, although some occasionally disperse after breeding to areas outside of the normal breeding range.<ref>{{cite book|author=Thévenot, M. |author2=Bergier, P. |author3=Beaubrun, P. |name-list-style=amp |chapter=Present distribution and status of raptors in Morocco |editor1=Newton, I. |editor2=Chancellor, R.D. |title=Conservation studies on raptors |publisher=International Council for Bird Preservation |year=1985 |isbn=094688806X |pages=83–101 |volume=5 |series=ICBP Technical Publication}}</ref>

=== Territoriality ===
[[File:BK1D0090.jpg|thumb|right|Two golden eagles in an aerial conflict over their home ranges, the upper bird clearly a juvenile.]]
Territoriality is believed to be the primary cause of interactions and confrontations between non-paired golden eagles. Golden eagles maintain some of the largest known home ranges (or territories) of any bird species but there is much variation of home range size across the range, possibly dictated by food abundance and habitat preference. Home ranges in most of the range can vary from {{convert|20|to|200|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author=McGrady, M.J.|year=1997|title=Golden Eagle|journal= BWP Update|volume= 1|pages= 99–114}}</ref> In [[San Diego County]] in [[California]], the home ranges varied from {{convert|49|to|137|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, with an average of {{convert|93|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dixon, J.B. |s2cid=88449730 |title=The Golden Eagle in San Diego County, California |journal=Condor |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=49–58 |year=1937 |jstor=1363773 |doi=10.2307/1363773}}</ref> However, some home ranges have been much smaller, such as in southwestern Idaho where, possibly due to an abundance of jackrabbits, home ranges as small as {{convert|4.85|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} are maintained.<ref name=marz/> The smallest known home ranges on record for golden eagles are in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, where they range from {{convert|1.5|to|9|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Clouet>{{cite journal|author=Clouet, M.|author2= Barrau, C.|author3= Goar, J.L. |title=The Golden Eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=102–9 |year=1999 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v033n02/p00102-p00109.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v033n02/p00102-p00109.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> 46% of undulating displays in Montana occurred shortly after the juvenile eagles left their parents range, suggesting that some residents defend and maintain territories year-round.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harmata, A. R. |title=What is the function of undulating flight display in Golden Eagles? |journal=Raptor Research |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=103–9 |year=1982 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v016n04/p00103-p00109.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v016n04/p00103-p00109.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Elsewhere it is stated that home ranges are less strictly maintained during winter but hunting grounds are basically exclusive.<ref name= Watson/> In Israel and Scotland, aggressive encounters peaked from winter until just before egg-laying and were less common during the nesting season.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Bahat>Bahat, O. (1989). Aspects in the ecology and biodynamics of the Golden Eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri'') in the arid regions of Israel. Master's Thesis. Tel Aviv Univ. Tel Aviv, Israel.</ref> Threat displays include undulating flight and aggressive direct flapping flight with exaggerated downstrokes.<ref name= Ellis2>{{cite book |author=Ellis, D.H. |title=Development of behaviour in the Golden Eagle |publisher=Wiley |year=1979 |jstor=3830587 |series=Wildlife Monographs |volume=70 |issue=70 |pages=3–94}}</ref> Most displays by mature golden eagles (67% for males and 76% for females) occur, rather than around the nest, at the edge of their home ranges.<ref name= Collopy2/> In Western Norway, most recorded undulating flight displays occur during the pre-laying period in late winter/early spring.<ref name= Gunnar/> Display flights seem to be triggered by the presence of other golden eagles.<ref name= Watson/> The use of display flights has a clear benefit in that it lessens the need for physical confrontations, which can be fatal.<ref name= Collopy2/> Usually, non-breeding birds are treated aggressively by the golden eagle maintaining their home range, normally being chased to the apparent limit of the range but with no actual physical contact.<ref name= Watson/> The territorial flight of the adult golden eagle is sometimes preceded or followed by intense bouts of undulating displays. The invader often responds by rolling over and presenting talons to the aggressor. Rarely, the two eagles will lock talons and tumble through the air; sometimes fall several revolutions and in some cases even tumble to the ground before releasing their grip.<ref name= Gunnar/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Haller, H. |title=Spatial organization and dynamics of a population of Golden Eagles (''Aquila chrysaetos'') in the central Alps |journal=Ornithol. Beob. |volume=79 |pages=163–211 |year=1982 |issn=0030-5707 |oclc=689312112}}</ref> In some parts of the Alps, the golden eagle population has reached the saturation point in appropriate habitat and apparently violent confrontations are more common than in other parts of the range.<ref>Haller, H. 1996. ''The Golden Eagle in the Grisons: Long-term studies on the population ecology of ''Aquila chrysaetos'' in the centre of the Alps''. Ornithol. Beob. Beiheft 9:1–167.</ref> Golden eagles may express their aggression via body language while perched, typically the adult female when confronted by an intruding eagle: the head and body are upright, feathers on head and neck are erect; the wings may be slightly spread and beak open; often accompanied by intense gaze. They then often engage in a similar posture with wings spread wide and oriented toward the threat; sometimes rocking back on tail and even flopping over onto the back with talons extended upward as defense. Such behavior may be accompanied by wing slap against the threatening intruder.<ref name= Ellis2/> When approached by an intruder, the defending eagle turns away, partially spreads tail, lowers head, and remains still; adults on the nest may lower head and "freeze" when approached by a person or a helicopter.<ref name= Ellis2/> Females in Israel displayed more than males and mostly against interspecific intruders; males apparently displayed primarily as part of courtship.<ref name= Bahat/> Five of 7 aggressive encounters at carcasses during winter in Norway were won by females; in 15 of 21 conflicts, the younger bird dominated an older conspecific.<ref name= Halley>{{cite journal |author=Halley, D.J.|author2= Gjershaug, J.O. |title=Inter- and intra-specific dominance relationships and feeding behaviour of golden eagles ''Aquila chrysaetos'' and Sea Eagles ''Haliaeetus albicilla'' at carcass |journal=Ibis |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=295–301 |year=1998 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1998.tb04392.x }}</ref> However, obvious juvenile eagles (apparent to the adult eagles due to the amount of white on their wings and tail) are sometimes allowed to penetrate deeply into a pair's home range and all parties commonly ignore each other.<ref name= Kochert>Kochert, M.N. (1972). ''Population status and chemical contamination in Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho''. Masters in Science thesis. University of Idaho, Moscow.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=L.H. |first2=A. |last2=Watson |title=The Golden Eagle in relation to its food supply |journal=Ibis |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=78–100 |year=1964 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1964.tb03682.x }}</ref> In [[North Dakota]], it was verified that parent eagles were not aggressive towards their own young after the nesting period and some juveniles stayed on their parents territory until their 2nd spring and then left by their own accord.<ref name="O'Toole">{{cite journal |author1=O'Toole, L.T. |author2=Kennedy, P.L. |author3=Knight, R.L. |author4=McEwen, L.C. |title=Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles |journal=Wilson Bulletin |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=472–7 |year=1999 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v111n04/p0472-p0477.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v111n04/p0472-p0477.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>