Editing Gladiator (section)

===Combat===
Lightly armed and armoured fighters, such as the [[retiarius]], would tire less rapidly than their heavily armed opponents; most bouts would have lasted 10 to 15 minutes, or 20 minutes at most.<ref>{{harvnb|Potter|Mattingly|1999|p=313}}</ref> In late Republican ''munera'', between 10 and 13 matches could have been fought on one day; this assumes one match at a time in the course of an afternoon.<ref name="Potter and Mattingly, 313" />

Spectators preferred to watch highly skilled, well matched ''ordinarii'' with complementary fighting styles; these were the most costly to train and to hire. A general ''[[melee]]'' of several, lower-skilled gladiators was far less costly, but also less popular. Even among the ''ordinarii'', match winners might have to fight a new, well-rested opponent, either a ''tertiarius'' ("third choice gladiator") by prearrangement; or a "substitute" gladiator (''suppositicius'') who fought at the whim of the ''editor'' as an unadvertised, unexpected "extra".<ref>{{harvnb|Kyle|2007|pp=313–314}}</ref> This yielded two combats for the cost of three gladiators, rather than four; such contests were prolonged, and in some cases, more bloody. Most were probably of poor quality,<ref>Dunkle, Roger, ''Gladiators: Violence and Spectacle in Ancient Rome'', Routledge, 2013, pp. 69–71; Dunkle is discussing the use of a ''suppositicius'' (a substitute used only at need, probably to prolong a particular scheduled fight) and a ''tertiarius'', citing Petronius for the latter as offering a poor quality bout.</ref> but the emperor [[Caracalla]] chose to test a notably skilled and successful fighter named Bato against first one ''supposicitius'', whom he beat, and then another, who killed him.<ref name="Dunkle_2013_p70-71">Dunkle, Roger, ''Gladiators: Violence and Spectacle in Ancient Rome'', Routledge, 2013, pp. 70–71</ref> At the opposite level of the profession, a gladiator reluctant to confront his opponent might be whipped, or goaded with hot irons, until he engaged through sheer desperation.<ref name="Fagan" />

[[File:Astyanax vs Kalendio mosaic.jpg|thumb|Mosaic at the [[National Archaeological Museum of Spain|National Archaeological Museum]] in [[Madrid]] showing a [[retiarius]] named Kalendio (shown surrendering in the upper section) fighting a [[secutor]] named Astyanax. The Ø sign by Kalendio's name implies he was killed after surrendering.]]
Combats between experienced, well trained gladiators demonstrated a considerable degree of stagecraft. Among the cognoscenti, bravado and skill in combat were esteemed over mere hacking and bloodshed; some gladiators made their careers and reputation from bloodless victories. Suetonius describes an exceptional ''munus'' by Nero, in which no-one was killed, "not even ''noxii'' (enemies of the state)."<ref name="Fagan">{{cite book | last = Fagan | first = Garrett | year = 2011 | title = The Lure of the Arena: Social Psychology and the Crowd at the Roman Games | publisher = Cambridge University Press | pages=217–218, 273, 277| isbn = 978-0521196161}} Fagan speculates that Nero was perversely defying the crowd's expectations, or perhaps trying to please a different kind of crowd.</ref>

Trained gladiators were expected to observe professional rules of combat. Most matches employed a senior [[referee]] (''summa rudis'') and an assistant, shown in mosaics with long staffs (''rudes'') to caution or separate opponents at some crucial point in the match. Referees were usually retired gladiators whose decisions, judgement and discretion were, for the most part, respected;<ref>Though not always: the gladiator Diodorus blames "murderous Fate and the cunning treachery of the ''summa rudis''" for his death, not his own error in not finishing off his opponent when he had the chance: see Robert, Gladiateurs, no. 79 = SgO 11/02/01</ref> they could stop bouts entirely, or pause them to allow the combatants rest, refreshment and a rub-down.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=101}}; based on mosaics and a Pompeian tomb relief.</ref>

Ludi and ''munera'' were accompanied by music, played as interludes, or building to a "frenzied crescendo" during combats, perhaps to heighten the suspense during a gladiator's appeal; blows may have been accompanied by trumpet-blasts.<ref>The gravestones of several musicians and gladiators mention such modulations; see Fagan, pp. 225–226, and footnotes.</ref><ref name="Coleman"/> The [[Zliten mosaic]] in Libya (circa 80–100 AD) shows musicians playing an accompaniment to provincial games (with gladiators, ''bestiarii'', or ''venatores'' and prisoners attacked by beasts). Their instruments are a long straight trumpet (''[[Lituus|tubicen]]''), a large curved horn (''[[Cornu (horn)|Cornu]]'') and a [[water organ]] (''hydraulis'').<ref>{{harvnb|Wiedemann|1992|pp=15–16}}.</ref> Similar representations (musicians, gladiators and ''bestiari'') are found on a tomb relief in [[Pompeii]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wiedemann|1992|p=15}}. Wiedemann is citing Kraus and von Matt's ''Pompei and Herculaneum'', New York, 1975, Fig. 53.</ref>