Editing Gadsden Purchase (section)

== Growth of the region after 1854 ==

=== Army control ===
The residents of the area gained full US citizenship and slowly assimilated into American life over the next half-century.<ref>{{cite thesis |first=Marcy Gail |last=Goldstein |title=Americanization and Mexicanization: The Mexican Elite and Anglo-Americans in the Gadsden Purchase Lands, 1853–1880 |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |year=1977 }} DAI 1977 38(3): 1572-1573-A.</ref> The principal threat to the peace and security of settlers and travelers in the area was raids by Apache Indians. The US Army took control of the purchase lands in 1854 but not until 1856 were troops stationed in the troubled region. In June 1857 it established Fort Buchanan south of the Gila at the head of the Sonoita Creek Valley. The fort protected the area until it was evacuated and destroyed in July 1861.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Ben |last=Sacks |title=The Origins of Fort Buchanan: Myth and Fact |magazine=Arizona and the West |year=1965 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=207–226 |issn=0004-1408}}</ref> The new stability brought miners and ranchers. By the late 1850s mining camps and military posts had not only transformed the Arizona countryside; they had also generated new trade linkages to the state of Sonora, Mexico. Magdalena, Sonora, became a supply center for Tubac; wheat from nearby Cucurpe fed the troops at Fort Buchanan; and the town of Santa Cruz sustained the Mowry mines, just miles to the north.

=== Civil War ===
In 1861, during the [[American Civil War]], the [[Confederate States of America]] formed the [[Confederate Arizona|Confederate Territory of Arizona]], including in the new territory mainly areas acquired by the Gadsden Purchase. In 1863, using a north-to-south dividing line, the Union created its own [[Arizona Territory]] out of the western half of the New Mexico Territory. The new American Arizona Territory also included most of the lands acquired in the Gadsden Purchase. This territory would be admitted into the Union as the [[Arizona|State of Arizona]] on February 14, 1912, the last area of the [[Contiguous United States|Lower 48 States]] to receive statehood.

=== Social development ===
After the Gadsden Purchase, southern Arizona's social elite, including the [[Estevan Ochoa]], Mariano Samaniego, and Leopoldo Carillo families, remained primarily Mexican American until the coming of the railroad in the 1880s.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Thomas E. |last=Sheridan |title=Peacock in the Parlor: Frontier Tucson's Mexican Elite |magazine=Journal of Arizona History |year=1984 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=245–264 |issn=0021-9053}}</ref> When the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company opened silver mines in southern Arizona, it sought to employ educated, middle-class Americans who shared a work ethic and leadership abilities to operate the mines. A biographical analysis of some 200 of its employees, classed as capitalists, managers, laborers, and general service personnel, reveals that the resulting work force included Europeans, Americans, Mexicans, and Indians. This mixture failed to stabilize the remote area, which lacked formal social, political, and economic organization in the years from the Gadsden Purchase to the Civil War.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Diane |last=North |title='A Real Class of People' in Arizona: a Biographical Analysis of the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company, 1856–1863 |journal=Arizona and the West |year=1984 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=261–274 |issn=0004-1408}}</ref>

=== Economic development ===
From the late 1840s into the 1870s, Texas stockmen drove their beef cattle through southern Arizona on the Texas–California trail. Texans were impressed with the grazing possibilities offered by the Gadsden Purchase country of Arizona. In the last third of the century, they moved their herds into Arizona and established the range cattle industry there. The Texans contributed their proven range methods to the new grass country of Arizona, but also brought their problems as well. Texas rustlers brought lawlessness, poor management resulted in overstocking, and carelessness introduced destructive diseases. But these difficulties did force laws and associations in Arizona to curb and resolve them. The Anglo-American cattleman frontier in Arizona was an extension of the Texas experience.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=James A. |last=Wilson |title=West Texas Influence on the Early Cattle Industry of Arizona |magazine=Southwestern Historical Quarterly |year=1967 |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=26–36 |issn=0038-478X}}</ref>

When the Arizona Territory was formed in 1863 from the southern portion of the New Mexico Territory, [[Pima County, Arizona|Pima County]] and later [[Cochise County, Arizona|Cochise County]]—created from the easternmost portion of Pima County in January 1881—were subject to ongoing border-related conflicts. The area was characterized by rapidly growing boom towns, ongoing Apache raids, smuggling and cattle rustling across the United States-Mexico border, growing ranching operations, and the expansion of new technologies in mining, railroading, and telecommunications.

In the 1860s conflict between the Apaches and the Americans was at its height. Until 1886, almost constant warfare existed in the region adjacent to the Mexican border. The illegal cattle operations kept beef prices in the border region lower and provided cheap stock that helped small ranchers get by. Many early [[Tombstone, Arizona]] residents looked the other way when it was "only Mexicans" being robbed.<ref name="stone">{{cite web |url=http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/TStone.html |title=History of Old Tombstone |access-date=February 7, 2011 |work=Discover Arizona }}</ref>

Outlaws derisively called "[[Cochise County Cowboys|The Cowboys]]" frequently robbed [[stagecoach]]es and brazenly stole cattle in broad daylight, scaring off the legitimate cowboys watching the herds.<ref name="oldwest2">{{cite web |title=Tombstones O.K. Corral 2 |url=http://www.oldwesthistory.net/tombstones_ok_corral_2.html |work=The Old West History Net |access-date=May 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616153323/http://www.oldwesthistory.net/tombstones_ok_corral_2.html |archive-date=June 16, 2011 }}</ref> Bandits used the border between the United States and Mexico to raid across in one direction and take sanctuary in the other. In December 1878, and again the next year, Mexican authorities complained about the "Cowboy" outlaws who stole Mexican beef and resold it in Arizona. The ''[[Tucson Citizen|Arizona Citizen]]'' reported that both U.S. and Mexican bandits were stealing horses from the Santa Cruz Valley and selling them in Sonora. Arizona Territorial Governor Frémont investigated the Mexican government's allegations and accused them in turn of allowing outlaws to use Sonora as a base of operations for raiding into Arizona.<ref name=ball>{{cite magazine |title=Pioneer Lawman: Crawley P. Dake and Law Enforcement on the Southwestern Frontier |first1=Larry D. |last1=Ball |magazine=The Journal of Arizona History |volume=14 |number=3 |date=Autumn 1973 |pages=243–256 |publisher=Arizona Historical Society |jstor=41695121}}</ref>

In the 1870s and 1880s there was considerable tension in the region—between the rural residents, who were for the most part [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] from the agricultural South, and town residents and business owners, who were largely [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] from the industrial Northeast and Midwest. The tension culminated in what has been called the [[Cochise County in the Old West|Cochise County feud]], and the Earp-Clanton feud, which ended with the historic [[Gunfight at the O.K. Corral]] and [[Wyatt Earp]]'s [[Earp Vendetta Ride|Vendetta Ride]].

The Gadsden purchase resulted in the division of the [[Tohono Oʼodham Nation]] and its ancestral lands by the new international border. This disrupted traditional migratory practices and transportation of materials and goods essential for their spirituality, economy and traditional culture. Nine communities are on the Mexican side of this boundary. Conflicts have arisen mainly in the 21st century with stronger enforcement of customs laws at the border.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tonation-nsn.gov/history-culture/ |title=Tohono O'odham Nation - History and Culture |year=2016 |access-date=March 3, 2022}}</ref>

=== Railroad development ===
[[File:Gadsden Purchase Southern Pacific.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Gadsden Purchase]]

In 1846, James Gadsden, then president of the [[South Carolina Railroad]], proposed building a transcontinental railroad linking the Atlantic at Charleston with the Pacific at San Diego.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwantes |first1=Carlos |title=The West the Railroads Made |date=2008 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=978-0295987699 |page=16}}</ref> Federal and private surveys by Lt. John G. Parke and Andrew B Gray proved the feasibility of the southern transcontinental route, but sectional strife and the Civil War delayed construction of the proposed railroad. The [[Southern Pacific Transportation Company|Southern Pacific Railroad]] from [[Los Angeles]] reached Yuma, Arizona, in 1877, [[Tucson, Arizona]] in March 1880, [[Deming, New Mexico]] in December 1880, and [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] in May 1881, the first railroad across the Gadsden Purchase.<ref>{{cite book |first = David |last = Devine |title = Slavery, Scandal, and Steel Rails: The 1854 Gadsden Purchase and the Building of the Second Transcontinental Railroad Across Arizona and New Mexico Twenty-Five Years Later |year = 2004 |location = New York |publisher = iUniverse }}</ref>

At the same time, 1879–1881, the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway|Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad]] was building across New Mexico and met the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico March 7, 1881, completing the second transcontinental railroad (the first, the central transcontinental, was completed May 10, 1869 at [[Promontory, Utah|Promontory Summit, Utah]]). Acquiring trackage rights over the SP, from Deming to Benson, the Santa Fe then built a line southwest to Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, completed October 1882, as its first outlet to the Pacific. This line was later sold to the Southern Pacific. The Southern Pacific continued building east from El Paso, completing a junction with the Texas & Pacific in December 1881, and finally in 1883, its own southern transcontinental, the Sunset Route, California to New Orleans, Atlantic waters to the Pacific.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Myrick |first1=David |title=Railroads of Arizona, vol 1, the Southern Roads |date=1975 |publisher=Howell North |location=Berkeley, California |isbn=0-8310-7111-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/railroadsofarizo01myri/page/61 61–62] |url=https://archive.org/details/railroadsofarizo01myri/page/61 }}</ref> These railroads caused an early 1880s mining boom in such locales as [[Tombstone, Arizona]], [[Bisbee, Arizona]], and [[Santa Rita, New Mexico]], the latter two world class copper producers. From Bisbee, a third sub-transcontinental was built across the Gadsden Purchase, the [[El Paso and Southwestern Railroad]], to El Paso by 1905, then to a link with the Rock Island line to form the Golden State Route. The EP&SW was sold to the Southern Pacific in the early 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ibid.}}</ref>

The portion of the Southern Pacific in Arizona was originally largely in the Gadsden Purchase but the western part was later rerouted north of the Gila River to serve the city of Phoenix (as part of the agreement in purchasing the EP&SW). The portion in New Mexico runs largely through the territory that had been disputed between Mexico and the United States after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had gone into effect, and before the time of the Gadsden Purchase. The [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway|Santa Fe Railroad Company]] also completed a railroad across [[Northern Arizona]], via [[Holbrook, Arizona|Holbrook]], [[Winslow, Arizona|Winslow]], [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]] and [[Kingman, Arizona|Kingman]] in August 1883.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railswest.com/secondtranscontinental.html |title=Second Transcontinental Line brings competition |work=Railswest.com |access-date=May 28, 2011}}</ref> These two transcontinental railroads, the Southern Pacific (now part of the [[Union Pacific Railroad]]) and the Santa Fe (now part of the [[BNSF Railway|BNSF]]), are among the busiest rail lines in the United States.

During the early twentieth century, a number of short-lines usually associated with mining booms were built in the Gadsden Purchase to Ajo, Silverbell, Twin Buttes, Courtland, Gleeson, Arizona, Shakespeare, New Mexico, and other mine sites. Most of these railroads have been abandoned.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Myrick |first1=David |title=Railroads of Arizona, vol 1, the Southern Roads |date=1975 |publisher=Howell North |location=Berkeley, California |isbn=0-8310-7111-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/railroadsofarizo01myri/page/ passim.] |url=https://archive.org/details/railroadsofarizo01myri/page/ |url-access=registration }}</ref>

The remainder of the Gila Valley pre-Purchase border area was traversed by the [[Arizona Eastern Railway]] by 1899 and the [[Copper Basin Railway]] by 1904. Excluded was a {{convert|20|mi|km|adj=on}} section {{coord|33.1|N|110.6|W}} in the [[San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation]], from today's [[San Carlos Lake]] to [[Winkelman, Arizona|Winkelman]] at the mouth of the [[San Pedro River (Arizona)|San Pedro River]], including the [[Needle's Eye Wilderness]]. The section of [[U.S. Route 60 in Arizona|US Highway 60]] about {{convert|20|mi|km}} between [[Superior, Arizona|Superior]] and [[Miami, Arizona|Miami]] via [[Top-of-the-World, Arizona|Top-of-the-World]] (this road segment is east of Phoenix, in the Tonto National Forest passing through a mountainous region), takes an alternate route (17.4 road miles) between the [[Magma Arizona Railroad]] and the Arizona Eastern Railway railheads on each side of this gap. This highway is well north of the Gadsden Purchase.<ref>{{cite map |first= Marc |last= Pearsall |year=2002 |url=http://www.azrymuseum.org/Information/Arizona_Railroad_Map_2002.pdf |title=Railroads of Arizona |scale=Scale not given |location=Chandler |publisher=Arizona Railway Museum |access-date=August 1, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite map |author=DeskMap Systems |year=2005 |url=http://www.arizonaeasternrailway.com/images/AZER%20Map.pdf |title=Arizona Eastern Railway |scale=Scale not given |location=Austin, TX |publisher=DeskMapSystems |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060603235649/http://www.arizonaeasternrailway.com/images/AZER%20Map.pdf |archive-date=June 3, 2006 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Given the elevations of those three places, at least a 3% [[Grade (slope)|grade]] would have been required for rails built here, rather than the final alignment; railroads prefer 1% or less grade for better operation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://trn.trains.com/railroads/abcs-of-railroading/2006/05/grades-and-curves |title=Grades and curves: Railroading's weapons in the battle against gravity and geography |last=McGonical |first=Robert S. |journal=Trains |date=May 1, 2006 |access-date=July 8, 2018 |archive-date=July 9, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709035205/http://trn.trains.com/railroads/abcs-of-railroading/2006/05/grades-and-curves |url-status=dead }}</ref> This rugged terrain above the Gila River confirms the engineering, technical wisdom of acquiring the Gadsden Purchase for a southern transcontinental railroad. To William H. Emory of the U. S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers who surveyed the region in the 1840s–1850s, it was a good route "to the Pacific."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Borneman |first1=Walter |title=Rival Rails, the Race to Build America's Greatest Transcontinental Railroad |date=2010 |publisher=Random House |location=New York|isbn=978-1400065615 |page=8}}</ref>