Editing Euphrates (section)

=== Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods ===
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the [[Fertile Crescent]]. [[Acheulean]] stone [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] have been found in the Sajur basin and in the [[El Kowm (archaeological site)|El Kowm oasis]] in the central [[Syrian steppe]]; the latter together with remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' that were dated to 450,000 years old.<ref>{{harvnb|Muhesen|2002|p=102}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schmid|Rentzel|Renault-Miskovsky|Muhesen|1997}}</ref> In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra – at first occupied by [[hunter-gatherer]]s but later by some of the earliest [[farmer]]s, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and [[Nevalı Çori]] became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward.<ref name=sagonazimansky4954>{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2009|pp=49–54}}</ref> In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where [[rainfed agriculture]] was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey.<ref name=akkermansschwartz74>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=74}}</ref> Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of [[pottery]] in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area.<ref name=akkermansschwartz110>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=110}}</ref> Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including [[Tell es Sawwan|Tell es-Sawwan]].<ref name=helbaek>{{harvnb|Helbaek|1972}}</ref> During the 5th millennium BCE, or late [[Ubaid period]], northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over {{convert|10|ha}}.<ref name=akkermansschwartz163166>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|pp=163–166}}</ref> In Iraq, sites like [[Eridu]] and [[Ur]] were already occupied during the Ubaid period.<ref>{{harvnb|Oates|1960}}</ref> Clay boat models found at [[Tell Mashnaqa]] along the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period.<ref name=akkermansschwartz167168>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|pp=167–168}}</ref> The [[Uruk period]], roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly [[urbanism|urban]] settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like [[Nagar, Syria|Tell Brak]] and [[Uruk]] grew to over {{convert|100|ha}} in size and displayed monumental architecture.<ref>{{harvnb|Ur|Karsgaard|Oates|2007}}</ref> The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and [[cylinder seal|sealings]] far into Turkey and [[Iran]] has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. [[Habuba Kabira]] on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.<ref name=akkermansschwartz203>{{harvnb|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=203}}</ref><ref name=vandemieroop3839>{{harvnb|van de Mieroop|2007|pp=38–39}}</ref>