Editing Electronic music (section)

==Expansion: 1960s==
{{See also|Synthesizer|Harald Bode|Modular synthesizer|Buchla|Moog Music}}

These were fertile years for electronic music—not just for academia, but for independent artists as synthesizer technology became more accessible. By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was established and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of [[Otto Luening]]'s ''Gargoyles'' for violin and [[Tape recorder|tape]] as well as the premiere of [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]'s ''[[Kontakte]]'' for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers. "In ''Kontakte'', Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form', resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth-century film."{{sfn|Kurtz|1992|p=1}}

The [[theremin]] had been in use since the 1920s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950s (e.g., [[Bernard Herrmann]]'s classic score for ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'').{{sfn|Glinsky|2000|p=286}}

In the UK in this period, the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]] (established in 1958) came to prominence, thanks in large measure to their work on the BBC science-fiction series ''[[Doctor Who]]''. One of the most influential British electronic artists in this period<ref>{{cite web|url=http://delia-derbyshire.net|title=Delia Derbyshire Audiological Chronology}}</ref> was Workshop staffer [[Delia Derbyshire]], who is now famous for her 1963 electronic realisation of the iconic [[Doctor Who theme music|''Doctor Who'' theme]], composed by [[Ron Grainer]]. Other composers of electronic music active in the UK included [[Ernest Berk]] (who established his first studio in 1955), [[Tristram Cary]], [[Hugh Davies (composer)|Hugh Davies]], [[Brian Dennis]], [[George Newson]], [[Daphne Oram]] and [[Peter Zinovieff]].<ref>[[Francis Routh]]. '[https://francisrouth.net/epilgomena/appendices/appendix-b-four-electronic-music-concerts/ ''Four Electronic Music Concerts'']</ref>

[[File:Josef Tal - LeCaine Creative.jpg|thumb|Israeli composer Josef Tal at the Electronic Music Studio in Jerusalem (c.&nbsp;1965) with [[Hugh Le Caine]]'s Creative Tape Recorder (a sound synthesizer) aka "Multi-track"]]

During the time of the [[UNESCO]] fellowship for studies in electronic music (1958) Israeli composer [[Josef Tal]] went on a study tour in the US and Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://joseftal.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Tal-Electronic-Music-1958-9-A-red.pdf|title=Improved scans – Israel State Archives}}</ref> He summarized his conclusions in two articles that he submitted to UNESCO.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://joseftal.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Tal-Electronic-Music-1958-9-B-red.pdf|title=Improved scans – Israel State Archives}}</ref> In 1961, he established the ''Centre for Electronic Music in Israel'' at [[The Hebrew University]] of Jerusalem. In 1962, Canadian composer [[Hugh Le Caine]] arrived in Jerusalem to install his ''Creative Tape Recorder'' in the centre.{{sfn|Gluck|2005|pp=164–165}} In the 1990s Tal conducted, together with Dr. Shlomo Markel, in cooperation with the [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology]] and the [[Volkswagen Foundation]], a research project ('Talmark') aimed at the development of a novel musical notation system for electronic music.{{sfn|Tal|Markel|2002|pp=55–62}}

[[Milton Babbitt]] composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his ''Composition for Synthesizer'' (1961)—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at the [[Columbia Princeton Electronic Music Center|Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center]].

{{blockquote|For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?"{{sfn|Schwartz|1975|p=124}}}}

Collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, American composer [[Vladimir Ussachevsky]] invited [[Edgard Varèse|Edgar Varèse]] from France to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varèse embarked upon a revision of his work ''Déserts''. He was assisted by [[Mario Davidovsky]] and [[Bülent Arel]].{{sfn|Bayly|1982–1983|p=150|ref=Bayly19821983}}

The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the [[San Francisco Tape Music Center]] in 1963 by [[Morton Subotnick]], with additional members [[Pauline Oliveros]], [[Ramón Sender (composer)|Ramon Sender]], Anthony Martin, and [[Terry Riley]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://didierdanse.net/electronic_1960.html|title=Electronic music|website=didierdanse.net|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref><!--Source for the link between CPEMC and the founding of SFTMC needed.-->

Later, the Center moved to [[Mills College]], directed by [[Pauline Oliveros]], and has since been renamed Center for Contemporary Music.<ref name="oliveros1">"A central figure in post-war electronic art music, [[Pauline Oliveros]] [b. 1932] is one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center (along with Morton Subotnick, Ramon Sender, Terry Riley, and Anthony Martin), which was the resource on the U.S. west coast for electronic music during the 1960s. The Center later moved to Mills College, where she was its first director, and is now called the Center for Contemporary Music." from CD liner notes, "Accordion & Voice", Pauline Oliveros, Record Label: Important, Catalog number IMPREC140: 793447514024.</ref>

[[Pietro Grossi]] was an Italian pioneer of computer composition and tape music, who first experimented with electronic techniques in the early sixties. Grossi was a cellist and composer, born in Venice in 1917. He founded the S 2F M (Studio de Fonologia Musicale di Firenze) in 1963 to experiment with electronic sound and composition.

Simultaneously in San Francisco, composer Stan Shaff and equipment designer Doug McEachern, presented the first "Audium" concert at [[San Francisco State College]] (1962), followed by work at the [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]] (SFMOMA, 1963), conceived of as in time, controlled movement of sound in space. Twelve speakers surrounded the audience, and four speakers were mounted on a rotating, mobile-like construction above.<ref name="frankenstein1964">{{harvnb|Frankenstein|1964}}.</ref> In an SFMOMA performance the following year (1964), the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' music critic [[Alfred Frankenstein]] commented, "the possibilities of the space-sound continuum have seldom been so extensively explored".<ref name="frankenstein1964" /> In 1967, the first [[Audium (theater)|Audium]], a "sound-space continuum" opened, holding weekly performances through 1970. In 1975, enabled by seed money from the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], a new Audium opened, designed floor to ceiling for spatial sound composition and performance.{{sfn|Loy|1985|pp=41–48}} "In contrast, there are composers who manipulated sound space by locating multiple speakers at various locations in a performance space and then switching or panning the sound between the sources. In this approach, the composition of spatial manipulation is dependent on the location of the speakers and usually exploits the acoustical properties of the enclosure. Examples include Varese's ''[[Poème électronique|Poeme Electronique]]'' ([[tape music]] performed in the [[Philips Pavilion]] of the [[1958 World's Fair|1958 World Fair]], Brussels) and Stan Schaff's ''Audium'' installation, currently active in San Francisco."<ref>{{harvnb|Begault|1994|p=208}}, [http://www.cse.yorku.ca/course_archive/2005-06/W/6335/feb20/Begault_2000_3d_Sound_Multimedia.pdf online reprint] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810171114/http://www.cse.yorku.ca/course_archive/2005-06/W/6335/feb20/Begault_2000_3d_Sound_Multimedia.pdf |date=10 August 2012 }}.</ref><ref>[https://www.audium.org/archive_compendium/] Audium Archives ''Music Journal'', January 1977.</ref> Through weekly programs (over 4,500 in 40 years), Shaff "sculpts" sound, performing now-digitized spatial works live through 176 speakers.{{sfn|Hertelendy|2008}}

[[Jean-Jacques Perrey]] experimented with [[Pierre Schaeffer]]'s techniques on tape loops and was among the first to use the recently released Moog synthesizer developed by [[Robert Moog]]. With this instrument he composed some works with [[Gershon Kingsley]] and solo.{{sfn|Holmes|2012|p=457}} A well-known example of the use of Moog's full-sized [[Moog modular synthesizer]] is the 1968 ''[[Switched-On Bach]]'' album by [[Wendy Carlos]], which triggered a craze for synthesizer music.{{sfn|Holmes|2008|p=216}} In 1969 [[David Tudor]] brought a Moog modular synthesizer and Ampex tape machines to the [[National Institute of Design]] in [[Ahmedabad]] with the support of the [[Sarabhai family]], forming the foundation of India's first electronic music studio. Here a group of composers Jinraj Joshipura, [[Gita Sarabhai]], SC Sharma, IS Mathur and Atul Desai developed experimental sound compositions between 1969 and 1973.<ref>{{cite web |title=Electronic India 1969–73 revisited – The Wire |url=https://www.thewire.co.uk/in-writing/interviews/electronic-india-moog-interview-paul-purgas |website=The Wire Magazine – Adventures In Modern Music |language=en}}</ref>

===Computer music===
{{Main|Computer music}}
{{See also|Music-N|Algorithmic composition}}

Musical melodies were first generated by the computer [[CSIRAC]] in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were obviously speculative). Research has shown that people ''speculated'' about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,<ref name="Algorhythmic Listening 1949-1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing">{{cite web |title=Algorhythmic Listening 1949–1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing |url=http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |work=AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012 |access-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107072033/http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |archive-date=7 November 2017 }}</ref> but there is no evidence that they actually did it.<ref name="Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA">{{cite journal|title=MuSA 2017 – Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA |url=https://www.academia.edu/34234640 |journal=MuSA Conference|access-date=18 October 2017 |date=9 July 2017|last1=Doornbusch |first1=Paul }}</ref><ref name="Doornbusch">{{cite journal|last=Doornbusch|first=Paul|title= Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia and England |journal=[[Organised Sound]]|date=2017|volume=22|issue=2|pages=297–307 [11]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S1355771817000206|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The world's first computer to play music was [[CSIRAC]], which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and Maston Beard in the 1950s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the "[[Colonel Bogey March]]"<ref>{{Cite web| last = Doornbusch | first = Paul| title = The Music of CSIRAC | date = 29 June 2009| publisher = Melbourne School of Engineering, Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering| url = http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120118000725/http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> of which no known recordings exist.
However, [[CSIRAC]] played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer-music practice.

The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the [[God Save the King|British National Anthem]] that was programmed by [[Christopher Strachey]] on the Ferranti Mark I, late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a [[BBC]] outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "[[Ba, Ba Black Sheep]]", and "[[In the Mood]]" and this is recognised as the earliest recording of a computer to play music. This recording can be heard at [http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/digital60/www.digital60.org/media/index.html this Manchester University site]. Researchers at the [[University of Canterbury]], Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on [[SoundCloud]].<ref name="Turing">{{cite web|title=First recording of computer-generated music – created by Alan Turing – restored |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/26/first-recording-computer-generated-music-created-alan-turing-restored-enigma-code |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=28 August 2017 |date=26 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="BL-2016-09">{{cite web|title=Restoring the first recording of computer music – Sound and vision blog|url=http://blogs.bl.uk/sound-and-vision/2016/09/restoring-the-first-recording-of-computer-music.html|publisher=[[British Library]]|access-date=28 August 2017|language=en|date=13 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="Fildes2008" />

The late 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Starting in 1957, Max Mathews of Bell Labs developed the MUSIC programs, culminating in [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC V]], a direct digital synthesis language.{{sfn|Mattis|2001}} [[Laurie Spiegel]] developed the [[Algorithmic composition|algorithmic musical composition]] software "[[Music Mouse]]" (1986) for [[classic Mac OS|Macintosh]], [[Amiga]], and [[Atari]] computers.

===Stochastic music===
{{importance section|date=October 2012|reason=not about the stated subject of this article: electronic sound production}}
An important new development was the advent of computers to compose music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. [[Iannis Xenakis]] began what is called ''musique stochastique'', or ''[[stochastic music]]'', which is a composing method that uses mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used computers to compose pieces like ''ST/4'' for string quartet and ''ST/48'' for orchestra (both 1962),{{sfn|Xenakis|1992|p={{Page needed|date=October 2012}}}} ''Morsima-Amorsima'', ''ST/10'', and ''Atrées''. He developed the computer system [[UPIC]] for translating graphical images into musical results and composed ''Mycènes Alpha'' (1978) with it.

===Live electronics===
{{Main|Live electronic music}}

In Europe in 1964, [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] composed ''[[Mikrophonie (Stockhausen)|Mikrophonie I]]'' for [[tam-tam]], hand-held microphones, filters, and potentiometers, and ''Mixtur'' for orchestra, four [[sine wave|sine-wave]] generators, and four [[ring modulator]]s. In 1965 he composed ''[[Mikrophonie (Stockhausen)|Mikrophonie II]]'' for choir, Hammond organ, and ring modulators.{{sfn|Stockhausen|1971|pp=51, 57, 66}}

In 1966–1967, [[Reed Ghazala]] discovered and began to teach "[[circuit bending]]"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by [[John Cage]]'s [[aleatoric music]] {{sic}}<!--Following the link will show why this term is being misused about Cage.--> concept.<ref name="circuit">"This element of embracing errors is at the centre of Circuit Bending, it is about creating sounds that are not supposed to happen and not supposed to be heard ({{harvnb|Gard|2004}}). In terms of musicality, as with electronic art music, it is primarily concerned with timbre and takes little regard for pitch and rhythm in a classical sense. ... . In a similar vein to Cage's aleatoric music, the art of Bending is dependent on chance, when a person prepares to bend they have no idea of the outcome" ({{harvnb|Yabsley|2007}}).</ref>

[[Cosey Fanni Tutti]]'s performance art and musical career explored the concept of 'acceptable' music and she went on to explore the use of sound as a means of desire or discomfort.<ref>Cosey Fanni Tutti. [http://www.brainwashed.com/tg/cosey.html "Throbbing Gristle Personnel: Cosey Fanni Tutti"] (extract from [[Throbbing Gristle]]'s 1986 album ''[[CD1 (album)|CD1]]''. Brainwashed.com. Retrieved 21 April 2021.</ref>{{failed verification|date=April 2021|reason=None of that is mentioned there.}}

[[Wendy Carlos]] performed selections from her album ''Switched-On Bach'' on stage with a synthesizer with the [[St. Louis Symphony Orchestra]]; another live performance was with Kurzweil Baroque Ensemble for "Bach at the Beacon" in 1997.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sewell |first1=Amanda |title=Wendy Carlos: A Biography |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-005347-5 |page=172}}</ref> In June 2018, [[Suzanne Ciani]] released ''LIVE Quadraphonic'', a live album documenting her first solo performance on a Buchla synthesizer in 40 years. It was one of the first quadraphonic vinyl releases in over 30 years.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rancic|first=Michael|date=29 August 2018|url=https://nowtoronto.com/music/features/suzanne-ciani-interview|title=Analog synth pioneer Suzanne Ciani reflects on her life in waves|location=Toronto|work=[[Now (newspaper)|NOW Magazine]]|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421055300/https://nowtoronto.com/music/features/suzanne-ciani-interview}}</ref>

===Japanese instruments===
[[File:YAMAHA Electone D-1.jpg|thumb|160px|Early [[electronic organ]]: Yamaha [[Electone]] D-1 (1959)]]
In the 1950s,<ref name=CrodaOrgan2017>{{cite web |title=クロダオルガン修理 |trans-title=Croda Organ Repair |url=http://crodaorganservice.com/ |language=ja |website=CrodaOrganService.com |date=May 2017 |quote=クロダオルガン株式会社(昭和30年 [1955] 創業、2007年に解散)は約50年の歴史のあいだに自社製造のクロダトーン...の販売、設置をおこなってきましたが、[2007]クロダオルガン株式会社廃業... |trans-quote=Kuroda Organ Co., Ltd. (founded in 1955, dissolved in 2007) has been selling and installing its own manufactured Kurodatone ... during about 50 years of history, but [in 2007] the Croda Organ closed business...}}</ref><ref name=DiamondDir1993p752>{{cite book |chapter=Vicotor Company of Japan, Ltd. |title=Diamond's Japan Business Directory |language=ja |publisher=Diamond Lead Company |date=1993 |isbn=978-4-924360-01-3 |page=752 |quote=[JVC] Developed Japan's first electronic organ, 1958}}. {{em|Note}}: the first model by [[JVC]] was "EO-4420" in 1958. See also the Japanese Wikipedia article: "[[w:ja:ビクトロン#機種]]".</ref> Japanese [[electronic musical instrument]]s began influencing the international [[music industry]].<ref name=Palmieri2004>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Palmieri |title=The Piano: An Encyclopedia |series=Encyclopedia of keyboard instruments |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-135-94963-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SQaUAgAAQBAJ&dq=Yamaha%20Electone%201959&pg=PT406 406] |quote=the development [and release] in 1959 of an all-transistor Electone electronic organ, first in a successful series of Yamaha electronic instruments. It was a milestone for Japan's music industry.}}. {{em|Note}}: the first model by [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]] was [[List of Yamaha Corporation products#Electronic organs|"D-1"]] in 1959."</ref><ref name="cambridge">Russell Hartenberger (2016), [https://books.google.com/books?id=G2WSCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 ''The Cambridge Companion to Percussion'', p. 84], Cambridge University Press</ref> [[Ikutaro Kakehashi]], who founded [[Ace Tone]] in 1960, developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ.<ref name="sos_roland">{{citation |last=Reid |first=Gordon |date=2004 |title=The History Of Roland Part 1: 1930–1978 |journal=[[Sound on Sound]] |issue=November |url=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/nov04/articles/roland.htm |access-date=19 June 2011 }}</ref> At the 1964 [[NAMM Show]], he revealed it as the R-1 Rhythm Ace, a hand-operated percussion device that played electronic drum sounds manually as the user pushed buttons, in a similar fashion to modern electronic drum pads.<ref name="sos_roland"/><ref>Matt Dean (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=9RmN7w8kVpAC&pg=PA390 ''The Drum: A History'', page 390], [[Scarecrow Press]]</ref><ref name="fact2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.factmag.com/2016/09/22/the-14-drum-machines-that-shaped-modern-music/|title=The 14 drum machines that shaped modern music|date=22 September 2016}}</ref>

[[Image:KORG Donca Matic DA-20 (1963) clip1.jpg|thumb|120px|Early [[drum machine]]: [[Korg]] Donca Matic DA-20 (1963)]]
In 1963, [[Korg]] released the [[List of Korg products#1960s|Donca-Matic DA-20]], an electro-mechanical [[drum machine]].<ref name=DoncaMatic/> In 1965, [[Nippon Columbia]] patented a fully electronic drum machine.<ref name=US3482027>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.ms/patents/US3482027|title=Automatic rhythm instrument}}</ref> Korg released the Donca-Matic DC-11 electronic drum machine in 1966, which they followed with the [[Korg Mini Pops]], which was developed as an option for the [[Yamaha Electone]] electric organ.<ref name=DoncaMatic>{{cite web
 | title     = Donca-Matic (1963)
 | url     = http://www.korg.co.jp/SoundMakeup/Museum/Doncamatic/
 | work     = Korg Museum
 | publisher     = [[Korg]]
 | access-date     = 2 May 2017
 | archive-date     = 3 September 2005
 | archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20050903144901/http://www.korg.co.jp/SoundMakeup/Museum/Doncamatic/
 }}</ref> Korg's Stageman and Mini Pops series were notable for "natural metallic percussion" sounds and incorporating controls for drum "[[Break (music)|breaks]] and [[Fill (music)|fill-ins]]."<ref name="cambridge"/>

In 1967, Ace Tone founder [[Ikutaro Kakehashi]] patented a preset rhythm-pattern generator using [[diode matrix]] circuit<ref name=uspat3651241>
{{cite patent
 | country = US
 | number  = 3651241
 | status  = patent
 | title   = Automatic Rhythm Performance Device
 | inventor= [[Ikutaro Kakehashi]] (Ace Electronics Industries, Inc.)
 | fdate   = 3 June 1971
 | gdate   = 1972-03-21
}}</ref> similar to the [[Seeburg Corporation|Seeburg]]'s prior {{US patent|3358068}} filed in 1964 (See [[Drum machine#History]]), which he released as the FR-1 Rhythm Ace drum machine the same year.<ref name="sos_roland"/> It offered 16 preset patterns, and four buttons to manually play each instrument sound ([[cymbal]], [[claves]], [[cowbell]] and [[bass drum]]). The rhythm patterns could also be cascaded together by pushing multiple rhythm buttons simultaneously, and the possible combination of rhythm patterns were more than a hundred.<ref name="sos_roland"/> Ace Tone's Rhythm Ace drum machines found their way into [[popular music]] from the late 1960s, followed by Korg drum machines in the 1970s.<ref name="cambridge"/> Kakehashi later left Ace Tone and founded [[Roland Corporation]] in 1972, with [[:Category:Roland synthesizers|Roland synthesizers]] and [[:Category:Roland drum machines|drum machines]] becoming highly influential for the next several decades.<ref name="sos_roland"/> The company would go on to have a big impact on [[popular music]], and do more to shape popular electronic music than any other company.<ref name="fact2016"/>

[[Image:Technics SL-1200MK2-2.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Direct-drive turntable]]: {{nowrap|[[Technics (brand)|Technics]] SL-1200}} (introduced in 1972)]]
[[Turntablism]] has origins in the invention of [[direct-drive turntable]]s. Early [[belt-drive turntable]]s were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspin or scratching.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LApZ8KV7bZAC&pg=PA43 ''The World of DJs and the Turntable Culture'', page 43], [[Hal Leonard Corporation]], 2003</ref> The first direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at [[Panasonic|Matsushita]] (now [[Panasonic]]),<ref>''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'', 21 May 1977, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT140 page 140]</ref> based in [[Osaka]], Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests.<ref name="oxford">Trevor Pinch, Karin Bijsterveld, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KuRfLG0IedYC&pg=PA515 ''The Oxford Handbook of Sound Studies'', page 515], [[Oxford University Press]]</ref> In 1969, Matsushita released it as the [[Technics (brand)|SP-10]],<ref name="oxford"/> the first direct-drive turntable on the market,<ref name="reverb">{{cite web|title=History of the Record Player Part II: The Rise and Fall|url=https://reverb.com/news/history-of-the-record-player-part-ii-the-rise-and-fall|website=[[Reverb.com]]|date=October 2015|access-date=5 June 2016}}</ref> and the first in their influential [[Technics (brand)|Technics]] series of turntables.<ref name="oxford"/> It was succeeded by the Technics SL-1100 and [[Technics SL-1200|SL-1200]] in the early 1970s, and they were widely adopted by [[hip hop music]]ians,<ref name="oxford"/> with the SL-1200 remaining the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.<ref name="wired">[https://www.wired.com/2002/05/blackbox/ Six Machines That Changed The Music World], ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'', May 2002</ref>

===Jamaican dub music===
{{Main|Dub music}}
{{See also|Sound system (Jamaican)}}

[[Music of Jamaica|In Jamaica]], a form of popular electronic music emerged in the 1960s, [[dub music]], rooted in [[Sound system (Jamaican)|sound system]] culture. Dub music was pioneered by studio engineers, such as Sylvan Morris, [[King Tubby]], [[Errol Thompson (audio engineer)|Errol Thompson]], [[Lee "Scratch" Perry]], and [[Scientist (musician)|Scientist]], producing [[reggae]]-influenced [[experimental music]] with electronic sound technology, in recording studios and at sound system parties.<ref name="veal">{{cite book|first = Michael |last =Veal |date =2013|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kYtiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP54 |title = Dub: Soundscapes and Shattered Songs in Jamaican Reggae| pages= 26–44|chapter=Electronic Music in Jamaica|publisher =Wesleyan University Press|isbn =978-0-8195-7442-8 }}</ref> Their experiments included forms of [[Tape music|tape-based composition]] comparable to aspects of ''[[musique concrète]]'', an emphasis on repetitive rhythmic structures (often stripped of their harmonic elements) comparable to [[Minimal music|minimalism]], the electronic manipulation of spatiality, the sonic electronic manipulation of pre-recorded musical materials from mass media, [[Disc jockey#Dancehall/reggae deejays|deejays]] [[Toasting (Jamaican music)|toasting]] over pre-recorded music comparable to [[live electronic music]],<ref name="veal"/> [[remix]]ing music,<ref name="cambridge20"/> [[turntablism]],<ref name="cambridge49">Nicholas Collins, Julio d' Escrivan Rincón (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=AJbdPZv1DjgC&pg=PA49 ''The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music'', page 49], [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> and the mixing and scratching of vinyl.<ref>Andrew Brown (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-UJLXXBqUQC&pg=PA127 ''Computers in Music Education: Amplifying Musicality'', page 127], [[Routledge]]</ref>

Despite the limited electronic equipment available to dub pioneers such as King Tubby and Lee "Scratch" Perry, their experiments in remix culture were musically cutting-edge.<ref name="cambridge20">Nicholas Collins, Margaret Schedel, Scott Wilson (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bQeAtG97BmEC&pg=PA20 ''Electronic Music: Cambridge Introductions to Music'', page 20], [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> King Tubby, for example, was a sound system proprietor and electronics technician, whose small front-room studio in the Waterhouse ghetto of western [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] was a key site of dub music creation.<ref>[http://www.factmag.com/2014/04/16/dubbing-is-a-must-a-beginners-guide-to-jamaicas-most-influential-genre/ Dubbing Is A Must: A Beginner's Guide To Jamaica's Most Influential Genre], ''[[Fact (UK magazine)|Fact]]''.</ref>