Editing Domitian (section)

=== Military campaigns ===

[[File:Qobustan inscription.jpg|thumb|350px|left|A rock inscription at [[Gobustan, Baku|Gobustan]], [[Azerbaijan]] (then [[Caucasian Albania]]), mentioning Domitian and [[Legio XII Fulminata]]; the easternmost-known Roman inscription]]

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.<ref name = jones-127/> His most significant military contribution was the development of the [[Limes Germanicus]], which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.<ref name=jones-131>Jones (1992), p. 131</ref> Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the [[Chatti]], and across the [[Danube]] frontier against the [[Suebi]], the [[Sarmatians]], and the [[Dacians]].<ref name = jones-130/>

The conquest of Britain continued under the command of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], who expanded the Roman Empire as far as [[Caledonia]], or modern day [[Scotland]]. Domitian also founded a new [[Roman legion|legion]] in 82, the [[Legio I Minervia]], to fight against the Chatti.<ref name = jones-130/> Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence,<ref>{{cite book | last = Millar| first =Fergus| title =Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Roman Republic and the Augustan revolution| publisher = UNC Press Books|year = 2002| page = 51| isbn = 978-0-8078-4990-3}}</ref> the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day [[Azerbaijan]]. As judged by the carved titles of Caesar, Augustus and Germanicus, the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD.

Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however.<ref name=jones-127>Jones (1992), p. 127</ref> Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-39>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#39|39]]</ref><ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2|I.2]]</ref> Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one-third.<ref name=jones-131/><ref>Syme (1930), p. 64</ref> While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.<ref name=jones-144>Jones (1992), p. 144</ref>

==== Campaign against the Chatti ====

Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a [[census]], and suddenly ordered an attack on the [[Chatti]].<ref name=jones-128>Jones (1992), p. 128</ref> For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75&nbsp;kilometres (46&nbsp;mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.<ref name=jones-130>Jones (1992), p. 130</ref> Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of ''Germanicus''.<ref name=jones-129>Jones (1992), p. 129</ref> Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",<ref name=suetonius-domitian-6>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#6 6]</ref> and a "mock triumph".<ref name=tacitus-agricola-39/> The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89.<ref name=jones-131/>

==== Conquest of northern Britain (77–84) ====

{{Main|Roman conquest of Britain}}

[[File:Statue of Agricola at Bath cropped.png|thumb|180px|upright|[[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] ([[Bath, Somerset|Bath]])]]

One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] largely concerns the conquest of northern Britain between 77 and 84.<ref name=jones-131/> Agricola arrived {{circa|77}} as governor of [[Roman Britain]], immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modern [[Scotland]]). In 82, Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-24-1>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#24|24]]</ref> He fortified the coast facing [[Ireland]],{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few [[auxilia]]ries.<ref name=jones-132>Jones (1992), p. 132</ref> He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Reed | first = Nicholas | title = The Fifth Year of Agricola's Campaigns | journal = Britannia | volume = 2 | year = 1971 | pages = 143–148 | jstor = 525804| doi =10.2307/525804 | s2cid = 164089455 }}</ref>

Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the [[River Forth]] into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at [[Inchtuthil]].<ref name=jones-132/> In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by [[Calgacus]], at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]].<ref name=tacitus-agricola-24-2>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#29|29]]</ref> Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]], ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.<ref name=jones-132/> In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era.<ref name=jones-132/>

Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-39/> The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the [[province of Africa]] but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-24-3>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#42|42]]</ref> Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the [[Dacia|Kingdom of Dacia]] in the East. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic [[Withdrawal (military)|withdrawal]] of troops in the British province. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120&nbsp;kilometres (75&nbsp;mi) further south.<ref name=jones-133>Jones (1992), p. 133</ref> The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury.<ref name=jones-131/>

====Dacian wars (85–88)====
{{further|Domitian's Dacian War}}

The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the [[Danube]] river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King [[Decebalus]], crossed the Danube into the province of [[Moesia]], wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor [[Oppius Sabinus]].<ref name=jones-138>Jones (1992), p. 138</ref> Domitian quickly launched a [[counterattack|counteroffensive]], personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect [[Cornelius Fuscus]]. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph.<ref name=jones-139>Jones (1992), p. 139</ref>

The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Fuscus was killed, and the [[Aquila (Roman)|battle standard]] of the Praetorian Guard was lost.<ref name=jones-138/> The loss of the battle standard, or ''[[Aquila (Roman)|aquila]]'', was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride. Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of [[Tettius Julianus]], and finally defeated [[Decebalus]] in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.<ref name=jones-142>Jones (1992), p. 142</ref> An attack on the Dacian capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]] was forestalled when new troubles arose on the Germanic frontier in 89.<ref name=jones-150>Jones (1992), p. 150</ref>

In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.<ref name=jones-150/> Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.<ref name=jones-195>Jones (1992), p. 195</ref> For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful [[client state|client kingdom]], but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses.<ref name=Salmon/> Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia. Trajan continued Domitian's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Knight | first = D. J. | title = The Movements of the Auxilia from Augustus to Hadrian | journal = Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik | volume = 85 | year = 1991 | pages = 189–208 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Matei-Popescu | first = Florian | title = The Auxiliary Units from Moesia Superior in Domitian's Time and the Problem of CIL XVI 41 | journal = Ephemeris Napocensis | volume = 16–17 | year = 2006–2007 | pages = 31–48 }}</ref> Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.<ref name=Salmon>{{cite journal | last = Salmon | first = Edward Togo | title = Trajan's Conquest of Dacia | journal = Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association | volume = 67 | pages = 83–105 | year = 1936 | jstor = 283229 | doi = 10.2307/283229 }}</ref>