Editing Demosthenes (section)

===Last political initiatives and death===
====Confrontation with Alexander====
[[File:Napoli BW 2013-05-16 16-24-01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Alexander Mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]], from a 3rd-century&nbsp;BC original Greek painting, now lost. In 336–335&nbsp;BC, the king of Macedon killed any attempt of the Greek cities at resistance and shattered Demosthenes's hopes for Athenian independence.]]
After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment upon Thebes, but made peace with Athens on very lenient terms. Demosthenes encouraged the fortification of Athens and was chosen by the ekklesia to deliver the [[Demosthenes' Funeral Oration|Funeral Oration]].<ref name="On the Crown299">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:285|285]], [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:299|299.]]</ref> In 337&nbsp;BC, Philip created the [[League of Corinth]], a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella.<ref>L.A. Tritle, ''The Greek World in the Fourth Century'', 123.</ref> In 336&nbsp;BC, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter, [[Cleopatra of Macedon]], to King [[Alexander I of Epirus|Alexander of Epirus]]. The Macedonian citizens swiftly proclaimed [[Alexander the Great|Alexander III of Macedon]], then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. Greek cities like Athens and Thebes saw in this change of leadership an opportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenes celebrated Philip's assassination and played a leading part in his city's uprising. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-offerings, violating all decency."<ref name="Ctesiphon77" /> Demosthenes also sent envoys to [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], whom he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander.<ref>P. Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', 119.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Thirlwall|first=Connop|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=945b5VCgEFEC&q=%22Attalus%22+macedonia&pg=PA107|title=A History of Greece by the Rev. Connop Thirlwall|publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Green & Longman, Paternoster-Row and John Taylor|year=1839|volume=6|language=en}}</ref> Nonetheless, Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance at its gates. When the Athenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new King of Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment.

In 335&nbsp;BC Alexander felt free to engage the [[Thracians]] and the [[Illyrians]], but, while he was campaigning in the north, Demosthenes spread a rumour—even producing a bloodstained messenger—that Alexander and all of his expeditionary force had been slaughtered by the [[Triballi]]ans.<ref>Demades, ''On the Twelve Years'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0066%3Aspeech%3D1%3Asection%3D17 17] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155129/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0066%3Aspeech%3D1%3Asection%3D17 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* J. R. Hamilton, ''Alexander the Great'', 48.</ref> The Thebans and the Athenians rebelled once again, financed by [[Darius III of Persia]], and Demosthenes is said to have received about 300&nbsp;talents on behalf of Athens and to have faced accusations of embezzlement.{{Ref label|J|j|none}} Alexander reacted immediately and razed Thebes to the ground. He did not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. According to [[Plutarch]], a special Athenian embassy led by [[Phocion]], an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to relent.<ref name="Phocion">Plutarch, ''Phocion'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0057%3Achapter%3D17%3Asection%3D1 17.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155010/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0057%3Achapter%3D17%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

According to ancient writers, Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" ({{langx|grc|Μαργίτης}})<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0026.tlg003.perseus-grc1:160| title = Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, §160}}</ref><ref name = "Harpokration">{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2013.01.0002%3Aletter%3Dm%3Aentry%3Dmargites| title = Harpokration, Lexicon of the Ten Orators, § m6}}</ref><ref name = "Plutach_Demosthenes">{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg054.perseus-grc1:23| title = Plutarch, Life of Demosthenes, §23}}</ref> and a boy.<ref name = "Plutach_Demosthenes"/> Greeks used the word Margites to describe foolish and useless people, on account of the [[Margites]].<ref name = "Harpokration"/><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg2040.tlg002.perseus-grc1:8.#note1| title = Advice to Young Men on Greek Literature, Basil of Caesarea, § 8}}</ref>

====Delivery of ''On the Crown''====
{{See also|On the Crown}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "You stand revealed in your life and conduct, in your public performances and also in your public abstinences. A project approved by the people is going forward. Aeschines is speechless. A regrettable incident is reported. Aeschines is in evidence. He reminds one of an old sprain or fracture: the moment you are out of health it begins to be active."
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| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''On the Crown'', 198)—In ''On the Crown'' Demosthenes fiercely assaulted and finally neutralised Aeschines, his formidable political opponent.
|}
Despite the unsuccessful ventures against Philip and Alexander, most Athenians still respected Demosthenes, because they shared his sentiments and wished to restore their independence.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=A history of Greece, Volume 12|last=Grote|first=George|publisher=John Murray|year=1856|location=London}}</ref> In 336&nbsp;BC, the orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honour Demosthenes for his services to the city by presenting him, according to custom, with a golden crown. This proposal became a political issue and, in 330&nbsp;BC, Aeschines prosecuted Ctesiphon on charges of legal irregularities. In his most brilliant speech,<ref name="Tsatsos301">K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 301; "Demosthenes". [[Encyclopaedia The Helios]]. 1952.</ref> ''On the Crown,'' Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon and vehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. He was unrepentant about his past actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policies was the honour and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyalty to Athens.<ref name="Cr321">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:321|321.]]</ref> He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections, though politically-motivated,<ref name=":0" /> to the crowning were arguably valid from a legal point of view.<ref name="Duncan">A. Duncan, ''Performance and Identity in the Classical World'', 70.</ref>

====Case of Harpalus and death====
{{details|Harpalus}}
[[File:Temple of Poseidon Poros.jpg|thumbnail|right|The site of the temple of Poseidon, [[Kalaureia]], where Demosthenes died by  suicide.]]
In 324&nbsp;BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge treasures, absconded and sought refuge in Athens.{{Ref label|K|k|none}} The Assembly had initially refused to accept him, following Demosthenes' and [[Phocion]]'s advice, but finally Harpalus entered Athens. He was imprisoned after a proposal of Demosthenes and Phocion, despite the dissent of [[Hypereides]], an anti-Macedonian statesman and former ally of Demosthenes. Additionally, the ekklesia decided to take control of Harpalus' money, which was entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes. When the committee counted the treasure, they found they only had half the money Harpalus had declared he possessed. When Harpalus escaped, the Areopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes and others with mishandling twenty talents.<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D3 25.3.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729220337/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D3 |date=29 July 2020 }}</ref>

Among the accused, Demosthenes was the first to be brought to trial before an unusually numerous jury of 1,500. He was found guilty and fined 50 talents.<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D26%3Asection%3D1 26.1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729194207/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D26%3Asection%3D1 |date=29 July 2020 }}</ref> Unable to pay this huge amount, Demosthenes escaped and only returned to Athens nine months later, after the death of Alexander. Upon his return, he "received from his countrymen an enthusiastic welcome, such as had never been accorded to any returning exile since the days of [[Alkibiades]]."<ref name=":0" /> Such a reception, the circumstances of the case, Athenian need to placate Alexander, the urgency to account for the missing funds, Demosthenes' patriotism and wish to set Greece free from Macedonian rule, all lend support to George Grote's view that Demosthenes was innocent, that the charges against him were politically-motivated, and that he "was neither paid nor bought by Harpalus."<ref name=":0" />

[[Mogens Herman Hansen|Mogens Hansen]], however, notes that many Athenian leaders, Demosthenes included, made fortunes out of their political activism, especially by taking bribes from fellow citizens and such foreign states as Macedonia and Persia. Demosthenes received vast sums for the many decrees and laws he proposed. Given this pattern of corruption in Greek politics, it appears likely, writes Hansen, that Demosthenes accepted a huge bribe from Harpalus, and that he was justly found guilty in an Athenian People's Court.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hansen|first=Mogens|title=The Athenian democracy in the age of Demosthenes|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8061-3143-6|location=Norman|pages=274–5}}</ref> <br />
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "For a house, I take it, or a ship or anything of that sort must have its chief strength in its substructure; and so too in affairs of state the principles and the foundations must be truth and justice."
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| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''Second Olynthiac'', 10)—The orator faced serious accusations more than once, but he never admitted to any improper actions and insisted that it is impossible "to gain permanent power by injustice, perjury, and falsehood".
|}
After Alexander's death in 323&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes again urged the Athenians to seek independence from Macedon in what became known as the [[Lamian War]]. However, Antipater, Alexander's successor, quelled all opposition and demanded that the Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides, among others. Following his order, the ekklesia had no choice but to reluctantly adopt a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of [[Kalaureia]] (modern-day [[Poros]]), where he was later discovered by Archias, a confidant of Antipater. He died by suicide before his capture by taking poison out of a reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his family.<ref name="Pl29">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D29%3Asection%3D1 29.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520110336/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D29%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> When Demosthenes felt that the poison was working on his body, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of [[Creon of Thebes|Creon]] in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as the temple unpolluted." After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died.<ref name="Pl29" /> Years after Demosthenes' suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honour him and decreed that the state should provide meals to his descendants in the [[Prytaneum]].<ref name="pseudo14">Pseudo-Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 847d.</ref>