Editing Cooking (section)

===Carcinogens and AGEs===
[[File:BBQ Food.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chicken (food)|Chicken]], [[pork]] and [[bacon]]-wrapped [[Maize|corn]] cooking in a [[barbecue]] smoker. Studies show that barbecuing and smoking generate carcinogens.]]
In a human epidemiological analysis by [[Richard Doll]] and [[Richard Peto]] in 1981, diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1=Doll | first1=R.
| last2=Peto | first2=R.
| title=The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today
| journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute
| volume =66
| issue=6
| pages=1191–1308
| year =1981
| pmid =7017215
 | doi=10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192
}}</ref> Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer |author=Willett WC |journal=Environ Health Perspect |year= 1995 |issue=Suppl 8 |pages=165–170 |pmid=8741778 |pmc=1518978 |doi=10.1289/ehp.95103s8165 |volume=103 |bibcode=1995EnvHP.103S.165W }}</ref> Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens">{{cite book |title=Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/carcinogensantic0000nati |url-access=registration |publisher=National Academy Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-309-05391-4 }}</ref>

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates [[heterocyclic amine]]s (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the [[National Cancer Institute]] found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref name=amines>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=[[National Cancer Institute]] |year=2018 }}</ref> While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, [[microwaving]] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.<ref name=amines/> [[Nitrosamine]]s are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. [[Vitamin C|Ascorbate]], which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens"/><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Cancer Res. |year=1983 |volume=43 |issue=5 Suppl|pages=2435s–2440s |title=Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food |author=Scanlan RA. |pmid= 6831466 }}</ref>

Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of [[acrylamide]]. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; [[Cancer Research UK]] categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |publisher=Cancer Research UK |title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109155615/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Cooking food at high temperature may create [[advanced glycation end-product]]s (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in a number of diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in ageing.  AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via [[Maillard reaction]]. These compounds impart colors, tastes and smells that are specific to these food, but may also be deleterious to health.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Am J Lifestyle Med|date= May 2017 |volume=13|issue=4|pages=384–404| doi= 10.1177/1559827617708991|title=Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification |first1=Chandan |last1=Prasad |first2= Kathleen E |last2=Davis|first3= Victorine |last3=Imrhan |first4= Shanil|last4= Juma |first5= Parakat |last5=Vijayagopal |pmid= 31285723 |pmc= 6600625 }}</ref> Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or moist heat, reducing the cooking times and temperatures, as well as by first marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Am Diet Assoc|date= June 2010 |volume=110|issue=6|pages=911–16.e12| doi= 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018|title=Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet|first1=Jaime |last1=Uribarri |first2= Sandra |last2=Woodruff|first3= Susan|last3= Goodman|first4= Weijing |last4=Cai|first5= Xue |last5=Chen|first6= Renata |last6=Pyzik|first7= Angie |last7=Yong|first8= Gary E |last8=Striker|first9= Helen|last9= Vlassara|pmid= 20497781 |pmc= 3704564 }}</ref>