Editing Zenobia (section)

=====Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea=====
[[File:Bosra-Ruins.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Extensive ruins|[[Bostra]], [[Sack of Bostra|sacked]] by Palmyra in 270]]
In the spring of 270, while Claudius was fighting the [[Goths]] in the mountains of [[Thrace]], Zenobia sent her general [[Zabdas|Septimius Zabdas]] to Bosra (capital of the province of [[Arabia Petraea]]);{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} the queen's timing seems intentional.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA114 114]}} In Arabia the Roman governor (''dux''), [[Trassus]] (commanding the [[Legio III Cyrenaica]]),{{#tag:ref|Although his name is only mentioned by [[John Malalas]], archaeological evidence supports the Arabian campaign.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109]}}|group=note}} confronted the Palmyrenes and was routed and killed.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} Zabdas [[Sack of Bostra|sacked the city]], and destroyed the temple of [[Amun#Greece|Zeus Hammon]], the legion's revered shrine.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} A Latin inscription after the fall of Zenobia attests to its destruction:{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}} "The temple of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed by the Palmyrene enemies, which&nbsp;... rebuilt, with a silver statue and iron doors (?)".{{sfn|Dodgeon|Lieu|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} The city of [[Umm el-Jimal]] may have also been destroyed by the Palmyrenes in connection with their efforts to subjugate the Tanukhids.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}}

After his victory, Zabdas marched south along the [[Jordan Rift Valley|Jordan Valley]] and apparently met little opposition.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 61]}} There is evidence that [[Petra]] was attacked by a small contingent which penetrated the region.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} Arabia and [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]] were eventually subdued.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 62]}} Palmyrene dominance of Arabia is confirmed by many milestones bearing Vaballathus' name.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109]}} Syrian subjugation required less effort because Zenobia had substantial support there, particularly in Antioch,{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}} Syria's traditional capital.{{sfn|Nakamura|1993|p= [http://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/3431 141]}} The invasion of Arabia coincided with the cessation of coin production in Claudius' name by the Antiochean [[Mint (facility)|mint]], indicating that Zenobia had begun tightening her grip on Syria.{{sfn|Watson|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}} By November 270, the mint began issuing coinage in Vaballathus' name.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DqMrR29Cc7MC&pg=PA106 106]}}

The Arabian milestones presented the Palmyrene king as a Roman governor and commander, referring to him as ''[[vir clarissimus]] [[Rex (title)|rex]] [[consul]] imperator dux Romanorum''.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109]}} The assumption of such titles was probably meant to legitimize Zenobia's control of the province, not yet a usurpation of the imperial title.{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110]}} Until now, Zenobia could say that she was acting as a representative of the emperor (who was securing the eastern lands of the empire) while the Roman monarch was preoccupied with struggles in Europe.{{sfn|Bryce|Birkett-Rees|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gDAFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 282]}} Although Vaballathus' use of the titles amounted to a claim to the imperial throne, Zenobia could still justify them and maintain a mask of subordination to Rome;{{sfn|Kulikowski|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=XZokDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT158 158]}} an ''"imperator"'' was a commander of troops, not the equal of an emperor (''"imperator caesar"'').{{sfn|Southern|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=wnTOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110]}}