Editing War of 1812 (section)

=== War in the American Northeast ===

==== Niagara frontier, 1813 ====

[[File:Niagra River and Territory, 1812.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|{{center|[[Niagara Peninsula]], War of 1812 map<br />depicting locations of forts, battles, etc.}}]]

Both sides placed great importance on gaining control of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River because of the difficulties of land-based communication. The British already had a small squadron of warships on Lake Ontario when the war began and had the initial advantage. The Americans established a Navy yard at [[Sackett's Harbor, New York]], a port on Lake Ontario. Commodore [[Isaac Chauncey]] took charge of the thousands of sailors and [[shipwright]]s assigned there and recruited more from New York. They completed a warship (the corvette [[USS Madison (1812)|USS ''Madison'']]) in 45 days. Ultimately, almost 3,000 men at the shipyard built 11 warships and many smaller boats and transports. Army forces were also stationed at Sackett's Harbor, where they camped out through the town, far surpassing the small population of 900. Officers were housed with families. [[Madison Barracks]] was later built at Sackett's Harbor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/New_York/Madison_Barracks/Madison_Barracks.html|title=Madison Barracks|website=www.northamericanforts.com}}</ref>

Having regained the advantage by their rapid building program, on 27 April 1813 Chauncey and Dearborn attacked [[York, Upper Canada|York]], the capital of Upper Canada. At the [[Battle of York]], the outnumbered British regulars destroyed the fort and dockyard and retreated, leaving the militia to surrender the town. American soldiers set fire to the Legislature building, and looted and vandalized several government buildings and citizens' homes. The burning of York was pivotal for the British, and resulted in the absence of supplies that would be needed in later battles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horsman |first=Reginald |url=https://archive.org/details/warof18120000unse/ |title=The War of 1812 |date=1969 |publisher=Knopf |page=104 |language=en |quote=Barclay was also in a critical position in regard to the equipping and provisioning of his ships. Ordnance, ammunition, and other supplies for Lake Erie had been stored at York and been burned or taken by the Americans, and the retreat of the British from Fort George made it exceedingly difficult to send any other stores from Lower Canada |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>Daughan, George C. 1812 (p. 178). Basic Books. Kindle Edition.</ref> 

On 25 May 1813, Fort Niagara and the American Lake Ontario squadron began bombarding [[Fort George, Ontario|Fort George]].{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=37}} An American amphibious force assaulted Fort George on the northern end of the Niagara River on 27 May and captured it without serious losses.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=40}} The British abandoned [[Fort Erie]] and headed towards [[Burlington Heights (Ontario)|Burlington Heights]].{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=40}} The British position was close to collapsing in Upper Canada; the Iroquois considered changing sides and ignored a British appeal to come to their aid.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=40}} However, the Americans did not pursue the retreating British forces until they had largely escaped and organized a counter-offensive at the [[Battle of Stoney Creek]] on 5 June. The British launched a surprise attack at 2{{nbsp}}a.m., leading to confused fighting{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=40}} and a strategic British victory.{{sfn|Ridler|2015}}

The Americans pulled back to Forty Mile Creek rather than continue their advance into Upper Canada.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=40}} At this point, the [[Six Nations of the Grand River]] began to come out to fight for the British as an American victory no longer seemed inevitable.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=40}} The Iroquois ambushed an American patrol at Forty Mile Creek while the Royal Navy squadron based in Kingston sailed in and bombarded the American camp. General Dearborn retreated to Fort George, mistakenly believing that he was outnumbered and outgunned.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=41}} British Brigadier General [[John Vincent (British Army officer)|John Vincent]] was encouraged when about 800 Iroquois arrived to assist him.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=41}}

An American force surrendered on 24 June to a smaller British force due to advance warning by [[Laura Secord]] at the [[Battle of Beaver Dams]], marking the end of the American offensive into Upper Canada.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=41}} British Major General [[Francis de Rottenburg]] did not have the strength to retake Fort George, so he instituted a blockade, hoping to starve the Americans into surrender.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=44}} Meanwhile, Commodore [[James Lucas Yeo]] had taken charge of the British ships on the lake and mounted a counterattack, which the Americans repulsed at the [[Battle of Sackett's Harbor]]. Thereafter, Chauncey and Yeo's squadrons fought two indecisive actions, off the Niagara on 7 August and at Burlington Bay on 28 September. Neither commander was prepared to take major risks to gain a complete victory.{{sfn|Malcomson|1998}}

Late in 1813, the Americans abandoned the Canadian territory that they occupied around Fort George. They set fire to the village of Newark (now [[Niagara-on-the-Lake]]) on 10 December 1813, incensing the Canadians. Many of the inhabitants were left without shelter, freezing to death in the snow. The British retaliated following their [[Capture of Fort Niagara]] on 18 December 1813. A British-Indian force led by Riall [[Battle of Lewiston|stormed the neighbouring town]] of [[Lewiston, New York]] on 19 December; four American civilians were killed by drunken Indians after the battle. A small force of [[Tuscarora people|Tuscarora]] warriors engaged Riall's men during the battle, which allowed many residents of Lewiston to evacuate the village.{{sfn|Historic Lewiston, New York}}{{sfn|Prohaska|2010}} The British and their Indian allies subsequently [[Battle of Buffalo|attacked]] and burned [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] on Lake Erie on 30 December 1813 in revenge for the American attack on Fort George and Newark in May.{{sfn|Hickey|1989|pp=143, 159}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-02 |title=War of 1812 {{!}} History, Summary, Causes, Effects, Timeline, Facts, & Significance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-1812 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

==== St. Lawrence and Lower Canada, 1813 ====
[[File:Battle of Chateauguay.jpg|thumb|Fencibles, militia, and [[Mohawk people|Mohawks]] repel an American attack on [[Montreal]], [[Battle of the Chateauguay]], October 1813]]

The British were vulnerable along the stretch of the St. Lawrence that was between Upper Canada and the United States. In the winter of 1812–1813, the Americans launched a series of raids from [[Ogdensburg, New York]] that hampered British supply traffic up the river. On 21 February, George Prévost passed through [[Prescott, Ontario]] on the opposite bank of the river with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements and local militia attacked in the [[Battle of Ogdensburg]] and the Americans were forced to retreat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wgpfoundation.org/historic-markers/war-of-1812-5/|title=WAR OF 1812|date=19 December 2018|website=William G. Pomeroy Foundation}}</ref>

The Americans made two more thrusts against Montreal in 1813.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=45}} Major General [[Wade Hampton I|Wade Hampton]] was to march north from Lake Champlain and join a force under General [[James Wilkinson]] that would sail from Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario and descend the St. Lawrence. Hampton was delayed by road and supply problems and his intense dislike of Wilkinson limited his desire to support his plan.<ref>Daughan, George C. 1812 (p. 220). Basic Books. Kindle Edition</ref> [[Charles de Salaberry]] defeated Hampton's force of 4,000 at the Chateauguay River on 25 October with a smaller force of [[Canadian Voltigeurs]] and [[Mohawks]]. Salaberry's force numbered only 339, but it had a strong defensive position.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=45}} Wilkinson's force of 8,000 set out on 17 October, but it was delayed by weather. Wilkinson heard that a British force was pursuing him under Captain [[William Mulcaster]] and Lieutenant Colonel [[Joseph Wanton Morrison]] and landed near [[Morrisburg, Ontario]] by 10 November, about 150 kilometres (90&nbsp;mi) from Montreal. On 11 November, his rear guard of 2,500 attacked Morrison's force of 800 at [[Battle of Crysler's Farm|Crysler's Farm]] and was repulsed with heavy losses.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=45}} He learned that Hampton could not renew his advance, retreated to the United States and settled into winter quarters. He resigned his command after a failed attack on a British outpost at [[Battle of Lacolle Mills (1814)|Lacolle Mills]].{{sfn|Army and Navy Journal Incorporated|1865|pages=469}}

==== Niagara and Plattsburgh campaigns, 1814 ====

[[File:Battle of Lundys Lane.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|American infantry prepare to attack during the [[Battle of Lundy's Lane]]]]

The Americans again invaded the Niagara frontier. They had occupied southwestern Upper Canada after they defeated Colonel Henry Procter at [[Delaware Nation at Moraviantown|Moraviantown]] in October and believed that taking the rest of the province would force the British to cede it to them.{{sfn|Hickey|1989|p=137}} The end of the war with Napoleon in Europe in April 1814 meant that the British could deploy their army to North America, so the Americans wanted to secure Upper Canada to negotiate from a position of strength. They planned to invade via the Niagara frontier while sending another force to recapture Mackinac.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=47}} They captured Fort Erie on 3 July 1814.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=49}} Unaware of Fort Erie's fall or of the size of the American force, the British general [[Phineas Riall]] engaged with [[Winfield Scott]], who won against a British force at the [[Battle of Chippawa]] on 5 July. The American forces had been through a hard training under Winfield Scott and proved to the professionals under fire. They deployed in a shallow U formation, bringing flanking fire and well-aimed volleys against Riall's men. Riall's men were chased off the battlefield.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://armyhistory.org/the-battle-of-chippewa-5-july-1814/|title=The Battle of Chippewa, 5 July 1814 – The Campaign for the National Museum of the United States Army|date=16 July 2014 }}</ref>

An attempt to advance further ended with the hard-fought but inconclusive [[Battle of Lundy's Lane]] on July 25. The battle was fought several miles north of [[Chippawa Creek]] near Niagara Falls and is considered the bloodiest and costliest battle of the war.{{sfn|Heidler|Heidler|2002|pp=307–309}}{{sfn|Hickey|1989|p=187}} Both sides stood their ground as American General [[Jacob Brown (general)|Jacob Brown]] pulled back to Fort George after the battle and the British did not pursue.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=51}} Commanders Riall, Scott, Brown, and Drummond were all wounded; Scott's wounds ended his service in the war.{{sfn|Heidler|Heidler|2002|p=309}}

The Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged [[siege of Fort Erie]]. The British tried to storm Fort Erie on 14 August 1814, but they suffered heavy losses, losing 950 killed, wounded, and captured, compared to only 84 dead and wounded on the American side. The British were further weakened by exposure and shortage of supplies. Eventually, they raised the siege, but American Major General [[George Izard]] took over command on the Niagara front and followed up only halfheartedly. An American raid along the [[Grand River (Ontario)|Grand River]] destroyed many farms and weakened British logistics. In October 1814, the Americans advanced into Upper Canada and engaged in skirmishes at [[Cooks Mills, Welland|Cook's Mill]]. They pulled back when they heard of the approach of  the new British warship {{HMS|St Lawrence|1814|6}}, launched in Kingston that September and armed with 104 guns. The Americans lacked provisions and retreated across the Niagara after destroying Fort Erie.{{sfn|Benn|2002|p=52}}

[[File:British taking of the Northeast Bastion during the night assault on Fort Erie, August 14, 1814.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Unsuccessful British assault on [[Siege of Fort Erie|Fort Erie]], 14 August 1814]]

Meanwhile, after Napoleon abdicated, 15,000 British troops were sent to North America under four of [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington| Wellington]]'s ablest brigade commanders. Fewer than half were veterans of the [[Peninsular War]] and the rest came from garrisons. Prévost was ordered to burn Sackett's Harbor to gain naval control of Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and the Upper Lakes, and to defend Lower Canada from attack. He did defend Lower Canada but otherwise failed to achieve his objectives,{{sfn|Grodzinski|2010|pp=560–561}} so he decided to invade New York State. His army outnumbered the American defenders of [[Plattsburgh, New York|Plattsburgh]] under General [[Alexander Macomb (general)|Alexander Macomb]], but he was worried about his flanks and decided that he needed naval control of Lake Champlain. Upon reaching Plattsburgh, Prévost delayed the assault until Captain [[George Downie]]  arrived in the hastily built 36-gun frigate {{HMS|Confiance|1814|6}}. ''Confiance'' was not fully completed, and her raw crew had never worked together, but Prévost forced Downie into a premature attack.<ref>George C Daughan. ''1812: The navy's war''. {{ISBN|0465020461}} pp. 343–345</ref>

The British squadron on the lake was more evenly matched by the Americans under Master Commandant [[Thomas Macdonough]]. At the [[Battle of Plattsburgh]] on 11 September 1814, ''Confiance'' suffered heavy casualties and struck her colours, and the rest of the British fleet retreated. Prevost, already alienated from his veteran officers by insisting on proper dress codes, now lost their confidence, while Macdonough emerged as a national hero.{{sfn|Hickey|1989|pp=190–193}}

[[File:Battleofpburg.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|Defeat at Plattsburgh led Prévost to call off the invasion of New York.]]

The Americans now had control of Lake Champlain; [[Theodore Roosevelt]] later termed it "the greatest naval battle of the war".{{sfn|Roosevelt|1900|p=[https://archive.org/stream/navalwarorhisto00roosgoog#page/n120/mode/1up 108]}}

Prévost then turned back, to the astonishment of his senior officers, saying that it was too hazardous to remain on enemy territory after the loss of naval supremacy. He was recalled to London, where a naval court-martial decided that defeat had been caused principally by Prévost urging the squadron into premature action and then failing to afford the promised support from the land forces. He died suddenly, just before his court-martial was to convene. His reputation sank to a new low as Canadians claimed that their militia under Brock did the job but Prévost failed. However, recent historians have been kinder. Peter Burroughs argues that his preparations were energetic, well-conceived, and comprehensive for defending the Canadas with limited means and that he achieved the primary objective of preventing an American conquest.{{sfn|Burroughs|1983}}

==== Occupation of Maine ====

Maine, then part of Massachusetts, was a base for smuggling and illegal trade between the United States and the British. Until 1813, the region was generally quiet except for privateer actions near the coast. In September 1813, the United States Navy's brig {{USS|Enterprise|1799|2}} [[Capture of HMS Boxer|fought and captured]] the Royal Navy brig {{HMS|Boxer|1812|2}} off [[Pemaquid Point Light|Pemaquid Point]].{{sfn|Smith|2011|pp=75–91}}

On 11 July 1814, [[Thomas Masterman Hardy]] took Moose Island ([[Eastport, Maine]]) without a shot and the entire American garrison, 65 men{{sfn|Kilby|1888|p=79}} of [[Fort Sullivan (Maine)|Fort Sullivan]] peacefully surrendered.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=81–94}} The British temporarily renamed the captured fort "Fort Sherbrooke". In September 1814, [[John Coape Sherbrooke]] led 3,000 British troops from his base in Halifax in the "Penobscot Expedition". In 26 days, he raided and looted [[Hampden, Maine|Hampden]], [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]] and [[Machias, Maine|Machias]], destroying or capturing 17 American ships. He won the [[Battle of Hampden]], with two killed while the Americans had one killed. Retreating American forces were forced to destroy the frigate {{USS|Adams|1799|2}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adams I (Frigate) |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/a/adams-i.html |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |language=en-US}}</ref>

The British occupied the town of [[Castine, Maine|Castine]] and most of eastern Maine for the rest of the war, governing it under martial law{{sfn|Kilby|1888|p=80}} and re-establishing the colony of [[New Ireland (Maine)|New Ireland]]. The Treaty of Ghent returned this territory to the United States. When the British left in April 1815, they took £10,750 in [[tariff]] duties from Castine. This money, called the "Castine Fund", was used to establish [[Dalhousie University]] in Halifax.{{sfn|Harvey|1938|pp=207–213}} Decisions about the islands in Passamaquoddy Bay were decided by joint commission in 1817.{{sfn|Anderson|1906}} However, [[Machias Seal Island]] had been seized by the British as part of the occupation and was unaddressed by the commission. While kept by Britain/Canada, it remains in dispute to this day.{{sfn|Connolly|2018}}{{sfn|DeCosta-Klipa|2018}}