Editing Vikings (section)

====Runestones====
{{Main|Runestone}}
{{multiple image
| align     = right
| direction =
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| image1    = U 240, Lingsberg.JPG
| width1    =
| alt1      = Lingberg Runestone
| caption1  = The [[Lingsberg Runestone]] in Sweden
| image2    = Jellingsten stor 2.jpg
| width2    =
| alt2      = Jelling Stones
| caption2  = Runic inscriptions of the larger of the [[Jelling Stones]] in Denmark
| footer    = Two types of Norse runestones from the Viking Age
}}
The Norse of the Viking Age could read and write and used a non-standardised alphabet, called ''runor'', built upon sound values. While there are few remains of runic writing on paper from the Viking era, thousands of stones with runic inscriptions have been found where Vikings lived. They are usually in memory of the dead, though not necessarily placed at graves. The use of ''runor'' survived into the 15th century, used in parallel with the Latin alphabet.

The runestones are unevenly distributed in Scandinavia: Denmark has 250 runestones, Norway has 50 while Iceland has none.<ref name="forskning.no">{{cite web
 |last=Olstad
 |first=Lisa
 |title=Ein minnestein for å hedre seg sjølv
 |publisher=forskning.no
 |date=16 December 2002
 |url=http://www.forskning.no/artikler/2002/desember/1039779970.6
 |access-date=20 April 2008
 |archive-date=29 August 2005
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050829041924/http://www.forskning.no/artikler/2002/desember/1039779970.6
 |url-status=dead
 }}</ref> Sweden has as many as between 1,700<ref name="forskning.no"/> and 2,500<ref name="Zilmer38">Zilmer 2005:38</ref> depending on the definition. The Swedish district of [[Uppland]] has the highest concentration with as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone, whereas [[Södermanland]] is second with 391.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://realscandinavia.com/runestones-words-from-the-viking-age/|title=Runestones: Words from the Viking Age|date=4 April 2013|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523111457/http://realscandinavia.com/runestones-words-from-the-viking-age/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The majority of runic inscriptions from the Viking period are found in Sweden. Many runestones in Scandinavia record the names of participants in Viking expeditions, such as the [[Kjula Runestone#Sö 106|Kjula runestone]] that tells of extensive warfare in Western Europe and the [[Turinge Runestone]], which tells of a war band in Eastern Europe. Swedish runestones are mostly from the 11th century and often contain rich inscriptions, such as the [[Färentuna Runestones|Färentuna]], [[Hillersjö stone|Hillersjö]], [[Snottsta and Vreta stones|Snottsta and Vreta]] stones, which provide extensive detail on the life of one family, [[Gerlög and Inga]].{{sfn|Jesch|1991|p=53}}

Other runestones mention men who died on Viking expeditions. Among them are the [[England runestones]] (Swedish: ''Englandsstenarna''), which is a group of about 30 runestones in Sweden which refer to Viking Age voyages to England. They constitute one of the largest groups of runestones that mention voyages to other countries, and they are comparable in number only to the approximately 30 [[Greece Runestones]]<ref name="Jansson34">Jansson 1980:34.</ref> and the 26 [[Ingvar Runestones]], the latter referring to a Viking expedition to the Middle East.<ref>[[Carl L. Thunberg|Thunberg, Carl L.]] (2010). ''Ingvarståget och dess monument''. Göteborgs universitet. CLTS. {{ISBN|978-91-981859-2-8}}.</ref> They were engraved in [[Old Norse]] with the [[Younger Futhark]].<ref>Thunberg 2010:18–51.</ref> [[File:Pireuslejonet.jpg|thumb|[[Piraeus Lion]] drawing of curved [[lindworm]]. The runes on the lion tell of Viking warriors, most likely [[Varangians]], mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor.]]

The [[Jelling stones]] date from between 960 and 985. The older, smaller stone was raised by King [[Gorm the Old]], the last pagan king of Denmark, as a memorial honouring [[Thyra|Queen Thyre]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Jelling stones |year=2008 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302453/Jelling-stones |access-date=15 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620063813/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302453/Jelling-stones |archive-date=20 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The larger stone was raised by his son, [[Harald Bluetooth]], to celebrate the conquest of Denmark and Norway and the conversion of the Danes to Christianity. It has three sides: one with an animal image; one with an image of the crucified Jesus Christ; and a third bearing the following inscription:

{{blockquote|King Haraldr ordered these monuments made in memory of Gormr, his father, and in memory of Þyrvé [Thyre], his mother; that Haraldr who won for himself all of Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christian.<ref>{{cite Scandinavian Runic-text Database | edition=2020 | name=DR 42 | srdb=0d45c79a-c0d6-4937-9663-f044b31fcc65 | runor=a4071a93-512a-47d0-b645-cb2757f08fe0 | access-date=11 May 2025}}</ref>}}

Runic inscriptions are also found outside Scandinavia, in places as far as Greenland and Istanbul.{{sfn|Jesch|1991|p=44}} Runestones attest to voyages to locations such as [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]],<ref>baþum (Sm101), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> Greece (how the Vikings referred to the [[Byzantium]] territories generally),<ref>In the nominative: ''krikiaR'' (G216). In the genitive: ''girkha'' (U922$), ''k—ika'' (U104). In the dative: ''girkium'' (U1087†), ''kirikium'' (SöFv1954;20, U73, U140), ''ki(r)k(i)(u)(m)'' (Ög94$), ''kirkum'' (U136), ''krikium'' (Sö163, U431), ''krikum'' (Ög81A, Ög81B, Sö85, Sö165, Vg178, U201, U518), ''kri(k)um'' (U792), ''krikum'' (Sm46†, U446†), ''krkum'' (U358), ''kr''... (Sö345$A), ''kRkum'' (Sö82). In the accusative: ''kriki'' (Sö170). Uncertain case ''krik'' (U1016$Q). Greece also appears as ''griklanti'' (U112B), ''kriklati'' (U540), ''kriklontr'' (U374$), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> [[Khwaresm]],<ref>''Karusm'' (Vs1), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> [[Jerusalem]],<ref>''iaursaliR'' (G216), ''iursala'' (U605†), ''iursalir'' (U136G216, U605, U136), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> Italy (as Langobardland),<ref>''lakbarþilanti'' (SöFv1954;22), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> [[Serkland]] (i.e. the Muslim world),<ref>[[Carl L. Thunberg|Thunberg, Carl L.]] (2011). ''Särkland och dess källmaterial''. Göteborgs universitet. CLTS. pp. 23–58. {{ISBN|978-91-981859-3-5}}.</ref><ref>''serklat'' (G216), ''se(r)kl''... (Sö279), ''sirklanti'' (Sö131), ''sirk:lan:ti'' (Sö179), ''sirk*la(t)...'' (Sö281), ''srklant''- (U785), skalat- (U439), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> England<ref>''eklans'' (Vs18$), ''eklans'' (Sö83†), ''ekla-s'' (Vs5), ''enklans'' (Sö55), ''iklans'' (Sö207), ''iklanþs''
(U539C), ''ailati'' (Ög104), ''aklati'' (Sö166), ''akla''- (U616$), ''anklanti'' (U194), ''eg×loti'' (U812), ''eklanti'' (Sö46, Sm27), ''eklati'' (ÖgFv1950;341, Sm5C, Vs9), ''enklanti'' (DR6C), ''haklati'' (Sm101), ''iklanti'' (Vg20), ''iklati'' (Sm77), ''ikla-ti'' (Gs8), ''i...-ti'' (Sm104), ''ok*lanti'' (Vg187), ''oklati'' (Sö160), ''onklanti'' (U241), ''onklati'' (U344), -''klanti'' (Sm29$), ''iklot'' (N184), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> (including London),<ref>''luntunum'' (DR337$B), see [http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf Nordiskt runnamnslexikon PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712133519/http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/download/18.41318b8514835190952b54/1411045192660/Nordiskt+runnamnslexikon+2007.pdf |date=12 July 2015 }}</ref> and various places in Eastern Europe. Viking Age inscriptions have also been discovered on the [[Manx runestones]] on the Isle of Man. Not all runestones are from the Viking Age, such as the [[Kingittorsuaq Runestone]] in Greenland, which dates to the early 14th century.{{sfn|Jesch|1991|p=44}}