Editing Vacuum pump (section)

== Techniques ==
Vacuum pumps are combined with chambers and operational procedures into a wide variety of vacuum systems. Sometimes more than one pump will be used (in [[Series circuits|series]] or in [[Parallel circuits|parallel]]) in a single application. A partial vacuum, or rough vacuum, can be created using a positive displacement pump that transports a gas load from an inlet port to an outlet (exhaust) port. Because of their mechanical limitations, such pumps can only achieve a low vacuum. To achieve a higher vacuum, other techniques must then be used, typically in series (usually following an initial fast pump down with a positive displacement pump). Some examples might be use of an oil sealed rotary vane pump (the most common positive displacement pump) backing a diffusion pump, or a dry scroll pump backing a turbomolecular pump.  There are other combinations depending on the level of vacuum being sought.

Achieving high vacuum is difficult because all of the materials exposed to the vacuum must be carefully evaluated for their [[outgassing]] and [[vapor pressure]] properties. For example, oils, [[grease (lubricant)|grease]]s, and [[rubber]] or [[plastic]] [[gasket]]s used as [[seal (mechanical)|seal]]s for the vacuum chamber must not [[Boiling point|boil]] off when exposed to the vacuum, or the gases they produce would prevent the creation of the desired degree of vacuum. Often, all of the surfaces exposed to the vacuum must be baked at high temperature to drive off [[adsorption|adsorbed]] gases.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Hablanian |first=M. H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44959885 |title=High-vacuum technology : a practical guide |date=1997 |publisher=Marcel Dekker |isbn=0-585-13875-3 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=77–136 |chapter=Chapter 4: Vacuum Systems |oclc=44959885}}</ref>

Outgassing can also be reduced simply by [[desiccation]] prior to vacuum pumping.<ref name=":5" />
High-vacuum systems generally require metal chambers with metal gasket seals such as Klein flanges or ISO flanges, rather than the rubber gaskets more common in low vacuum chamber seals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=RAO |first=V V. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1175913128 |title=VACUUM SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. |date=2012 |publisher=ALLIED PUBLISHERS PVT LTD |isbn=978-81-7023-763-1 |location=[S.l.] |pages=110–48 |chapter=Chapter 5: Vacuum Materials and Components |oclc=1175913128}}</ref> The system must be clean and free of organic matter to minimize outgassing. All materials, solid or liquid, have a small vapour pressure, and their outgassing becomes important when the vacuum pressure falls below this vapour pressure. As a result, many materials that work well in low vacuums, such as [[epoxy]], will become a source of outgassing at higher vacuums. With these standard precautions, vacuums of 1 mPa are easily achieved with an assortment of molecular pumps. With careful design and operation, 1 μPa is possible.{{Citation needed|reason=Specific numbers require a proper citation|date=October 2022}}

Several types of pumps may be used in sequence or in parallel. In a typical pumpdown sequence, a positive displacement pump would be used to remove most of the gas from a chamber, starting from atmosphere (760 [[Torr]], 101 kPa) to 25 Torr (3 kPa). Then a sorption pump would be used to bring the pressure down to 10<sup>−4</sup> Torr (10 mPa). A cryopump or turbomolecular pump would be used to bring the pressure further down to 10<sup>−8</sup> Torr (1 μPa). An additional ion pump can be started below 10<sup>−6</sup> Torr to remove gases which are not adequately handled by a cryopump or turbo pump, such as [[helium]] or [[hydrogen]].{{Citation needed|reason=This entire paragraph gives specific numbers, requiring a proper citation|date=October 2022}}

[[Ultra high vacuum|Ultra-high vacuum]] generally requires custom-built equipment, strict operational procedures, and a fair amount of trial-and-error. Ultra-high vacuum systems are usually made of [[stainless steel]] with metal-gasketed [[vacuum flange]]s. The system is usually baked, preferably under vacuum, to temporarily raise the vapour pressure of all outgassing materials in the system and boil them off. If necessary, this outgassing of the system can also be performed at room temperature, but this takes much more time. Once the bulk of the outgassing materials are boiled off and evacuated, the system may be cooled to lower vapour pressures to minimize residual outgassing during actual operation. Some systems are cooled well below room temperature by [[liquid nitrogen]] to shut down residual outgassing and simultaneously cryopump the system.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Weston |first=G. F. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/567406093 |title=Ultrahigh vacuum practice |date=1985 |publisher=Butterworths |isbn=978-1-4831-0332-7 |location=London |oclc=567406093}}</ref>

In ultra-high vacuum systems, some very odd leakage paths and outgassing sources must be considered. The water absorption of [[aluminium]] and [[palladium]] becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the absorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or [[titanium]] must be considered. Some oils and greases will boil off in extreme vacuums. The porosity of the metallic [[vacuum chamber]] walls may have to be considered, and the grain direction of the metallic flanges should be parallel to the flange face.<ref name=":6" />

The impact of molecular size must be considered. Smaller molecules can leak in more easily and are more easily absorbed by certain materials, and molecular pumps are less effective at pumping gases with lower molecular weights. A system may be able to evacuate nitrogen (the main component of air) to the desired vacuum, but the chamber could still be full of residual atmospheric hydrogen and helium. Vessels lined with a highly gas-permeable material such as [[palladium]] (which is a high-capacity [[hydrogen]] sponge) create special outgassing problems.<ref name=":6" />