Editing Thirty Years' War (section)

== Peace of Westphalia (1648) ==
{{Main|Peace of Westphalia}}
[[File:Holy Roman Empire 1648.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|[[Holy Roman Empire]] after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648]]

The final Peace of Westphalia consisted of three separate agreements. These were the [[Peace of Münster]] between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, and the Treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. Preliminary discussions began in 1642, with a total of 109 delegations attending talks at one time or other, split between Münster and Osnabrück. After the Swedes rejected Christian of Denmark as mediator, the negotiators finally agreed on [[Papal Legate]] [[Pope Alexander VII|Fabio Chigi]], and Venetian envoy [[Alvise Contarini (diplomat)|Alvise Contarini]].{{Sfn|Croxton|2013|pp=3–4}}

The first to be signed on 30 January 1648, the Peace of Münster forms part of the Westphalia settlement since the Dutch Republic was still considered Imperial territory. It confirmed Dutch independence from Spain, although the Republic was not officially acknowledged as being outside the Empire until 1728.{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=746}} The Dutch also gained a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, ensuring the commercial ascendancy of [[Amsterdam]]. [[Antwerp]], capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in northern Europe, would not recover economically until the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Israel|1995a|pp=197–199}}

The terms of the separate treaties with France and Sweden had first to be agreed by Ferdinand and the Imperial estates. It has been argued they were a "major turning point in German and European...legal history", because they went beyond normal peace settlements and effected major constitutional and religious changes to the Empire itself.{{Sfn|Lesaffer|1997|p=71}} These negotiations were complex, with states like Saxony and Bavaria having very different views on desired outcomes, while Ferdinand continued to hope for an improvement in his military position. With Swedish troops on the verge of taking Prague, he finally signed the Peace on 24 October.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|pp=500–501}}{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|pp=746—747}}

Key elements of the Peace were provisions confirming the autonomy of states within the Empire, including Ferdinand's acceptance of the supremacy of the Imperial Diet, and those seeking to prevent future religious conflict. Article 5 reconfirmed the Augsburg settlement, established 1624 as the basis, or "Normaljahr", for determining the dominant religion of a state and guaranteed freedom of worship for religious minorities. Article 7 recognised Calvinism as a Reformed faith and removed the ''ius reformandi'', the requirement that if a ruler changed his religion, his subjects had to follow suit. These terms did not apply to the hereditary lands of the Habsburg monarchy, such as Lower and Upper Austria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Peace of Westphalia |url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/301ModernEurope/Treaty%20of%20Westphalia%20%5BExcerpts%5D.pdf |website=University of Oregon |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-date=17 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617200242/https://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/301ModernEurope/Treaty%20of%20Westphalia%20%5BExcerpts%5D.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Westfaelischer Friede in Muenster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|Signing of the [[Peace of Münster]] between [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]] and the [[Dutch Republic]], 30 January 1648]]

In terms of territorial concessions, Brandenburg-Prussia received [[Farther Pomerania]], and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, [[Bishopric of Kammin|Kammin]], and [[Bishopric of Minden|Minden]]. Frederick's son [[Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine|Charles Louis]] regained the Lower Palatinate and became the eighth imperial elector, although Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate and its electoral vote.{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=746}} In Lorraine, the [[Three Bishoprics]] of [[Prince-Bishopric of Metz|Metz]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Toul|Toul]] and [[Prince-Bishopric of Verdun|Verdun]], occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the [[Décapole]] in Alsace, with the exception of [[Strasbourg]] and [[Mulhouse]].{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=711}} Sweden received an indemnity of five million [[thalers]], the imperial territories of [[Swedish Pomerania]], and the Prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, which also gave them a seat in the Imperial Diet.{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=707}}

The Peace was denounced by [[Pope Innocent X]], who regarded the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg as property of the Catholic church, and thus his to assign.{{Sfn|Ryan|1948|p=597}} It also disappointed many exiles by accepting Catholicism as the dominant religion in Bohemia, Upper and Lower Austria, all Protestant strongholds prior to 1618. Fighting did not end immediately, since demobilising over 200,000 soldiers took time, and the last Swedish garrison did not leave Germany until 1654.{{Sfn|Wedgwood|1938|p=504}} In addition, Mazarin insisted on excluding the [[Burgundian Circle]] from the Treaty of Münster, allowing France to continue its campaign against Spain in the Low Countries, a war that continued until the 1659 [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]]. The [[Deluge (history)|political disintegration]] of Poland-Lithuania led to the 1655 to 1660 [[Second Northern War]] with Sweden, which also involved Denmark, Russia and Brandenburg, while two Swedish attempts to impose its control on the port of [[Bremen]] failed in [[Swedish Wars on Bremen|1654 and 1666]].{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=757}}

It has been argued the Peace established the principle known as [[Westphalian sovereignty]], the idea of non-interference in domestic affairs by outside powers, although this has since been challenged. The 'Congress' model was used for peace negotiations at [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668]], [[Treaties of Nijmegen|Nijmegen in 1678]], and [[Peace of Ryswick|Ryswick]] in 1697, although unlike the 19th century 'Congress' system, these were intended to end wars, rather than prevent them.{{Sfn|Croxton|2013|pp=331–332}}