Editing Taoism (section)

==Teachings==
{{Main|Taoist philosophy|Five precepts (Taoism)}}

=== Tao ===
{{Main|Tao}}
[[File:道-bronze.svg|thumb|[[Bronze script]] for ''tao'' {{lang|zh|道}}]]
''Tao'' (or ''Dao'') can mean "way", "road", "channel", "path", "doctrine", or "line".{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1996|p=113}} The Tao is a natural order that enables all things to exist and dominate every action, not so much through force as through a natural curvature of space and time.<ref>{{Citation |title=Chapter 4 - An overview of Vietnamese history and culture |date=2009-01-01 |work=Guerilla Capitalism |pages=40–71 |editor-last=Nguyen |editor-first=Lan |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781843345503500047 |access-date=2024-04-27 |series=Chandos Asian Studies Series |publisher=Chandos Publishing |doi=10.1016/b978-1-84334-550-3.50004-7 |isbn=978-1-84334-550-3}}</ref> It is the origin and power of all creation - its essence is unknown, but it can be observed in its manifestation - this is behind the operation and change of nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Xiangcai |first=MENG |date=2011-07-01 |title=Dao-di herbs and its change of cultivated origin place |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4268/cjcmm20111301 |journal=China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica |doi=10.4268/cjcmm20111301 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=1001-5302}}</ref> [[Livia Kohn]] describes the Tao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes the wicked. Literally 'the way', Tao refers to the way things develop naturally, the way nature moves along, and living beings growing and declining in accordance with cosmic laws."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} The Tao is ultimately indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition. Thus, the ''Tao Te Ching'' begins with: "The Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that Taoists have described the Tao as "dark" (''xuan''), "indistinct" (''hu''), "obscure" (''huang''), and "silent" (''mo'').{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=2}}

According to Komjathy, the Tao has four primary characteristics: "(1) Source of all existence; (2) Unnamable mystery; (3) All-pervading sacred presence; and (4) Universe as cosmological process."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=95}} As such, Taoist thought can be seen as [[Monism|monistic]] (the Tao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and [[Panentheism|panentheistic]] (the Tao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=98}} Similarly, [[Wing-tsit Chan]] describes the Tao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=136}}<ref>A. Chan, cited in {{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=20}}</ref> The Tao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}}

Furthermore, the Tao is something that individuals can find [[immanent]] in themselves and in natural and social patterns.{{sfnp|LaFargue|1994|p=283}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Thus, the Tao is also the "innate nature" (''xing'') of all people, a nature which Taoists see as being ultimately good.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=83}} In a naturalistic sense, the Tao is a visible pattern, "the Tao that can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world that can be observed and described.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Thus, Kohn writes that Tao can be explained as twofold: the transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Tao and the natural, visible, and tangible Tao.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}}

Dao is a process of reality itself, a way for things to gather together while still changing. All of these reflect the deep-rooted belief of the Chinese people that change is the most fundamental characteristic of things. In the ''Book of Changes'', this pattern of change is symbolized by numbers representing 64 related force relationships, known as hexagrams. Dao is the change of these forces, usually simply referred to as yin and yang.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daoist Philosophy {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/daoismdaoist-philosophy/ |access-date=2024-04-27 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] views regarding the Tao. For example, while the [[Xuanxue]] thinker [[Wang Bi]] described Tao as [[Mu (negative)|wú]] (nothingness, negativity, not-being), [[Guo Xiang]] rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was spontaneous "self-production" (zìshēng 自生) and "self-transformation" (zìhuà 自化).<ref>Chan, Alan, [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-daoism/ "Neo-Taoism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305221227/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-daoism/ |date=5 March 2023 }}, ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Summer 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</ref> Another school, the [[Chongxuan School|Chóngxuán]] (Twofold Mystery), developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|Madhyamaka]] philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Assandri |author-first=Friederike |title=Chán Buddhism in Dūnhuáng and Beyond: A Study of Manuscripts, Texts, and Contexts in Memory of John R. McRae |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-90-04-43191-1 |editor1-last=Anderl |editor1-first=Christoph |series=Numen Book Series |volume=165 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |pages=363–390 |chapter=Buddhist–Daoist Interaction as Creative Dialogue: The Mind and Dào in Twofold Mystery Teaching |doi=10.1163/9789004439245_009 |s2cid=242842933 |issn=0169-8834 |editor2-last=Wittern |editor2-first=Christian}}</ref>

=== De ===
{{Main|De (Chinese)}}
The active expression of Tao is called ''De'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=德|p=dé}}; also spelled ''Te'' or ''Teh''; often translated with virtue or power),<ref>{{harvp|Sharot|2001|pp=77–78, 88}}</ref> in a sense that ''De'' results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=32}}</ref> The term ''De'' can be used to refer to ethical [[virtue]] in the conventional [[Confucianism|Confucian]] sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Tao and practicing ''wu-wei''. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Tao's power and not anything like conventional [[morality]].<ref>Watson, Burton. ''The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu.'' p. 25. Columbia University Press. 1968. {{ISBN|978-0-231-03147-9}}</ref> Louis Komjathy describes ''De'' as the manifestation of one's connection to the Tao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}}

=== Ziran ===
{{Main|Ziran}}
[[file:Zhangzi in front of waterfalls.jpg|thumb|[[Zhuang Zhou]] in front of a waterfall. The natural downward flow of water is a common metaphor for naturalness in Taoism.]]
''Ziran'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=自然|p=zìrán|w=tzu-jan}}; lit. "self-so", "[[self-organization]]"<ref name="Zai 2015"/>) is regarded as a central concept and value in Taoism and as a way of flowing with the Tao.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005 |p=122}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21}} It describes the "primordial state" of all things{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=97}} as well as a basic character of the Tao,{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=56}} and is usually associated with [[Spontaneous process|spontaneity]] and creativity.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fowler|1y=2005 |1p=121|2a1=Girardot|2y=1988 |2p=56}} According to Kohn, in the ''Zhuangzi'', ''ziran'' refers to the fact that "there is thus no ultimate cause to make things what they are. The universe exists by itself and of itself; it is existence just as it is. Nothing can be added or subtracted from it; it is entirely sufficient upon itself."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=30}}

To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao and flow with its natural rhythms as expressed in oneself.{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=56}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21, 39}} This involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire and appreciating simplicity.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005 |p=122}} It also consists of understanding one's nature and living in accordance with it without trying to be something one is not or [[Analysis paralysis|overthinking]] one's experience.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=39}} One way of cultivating ''ziran'' found in the ''Zhuangzi'' is to practice the "fasting of the mind", a kind of [[Taoist meditation]] in which one empties the mind. It is held that this can also activate [[qi]] (vital energy).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=40}} In some passages found in the ''Zhuangzi'' and in the ''Tao Te Ching'', naturalness is also associated with rejection of the state ([[anarchism]]) and a desire to return to simpler pre-technological times ([[Anarcho-primitivism|primitivism]]).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=37}}

An often cited metaphor for naturalness is ''[[Pu (Taoism)|pu]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|t={{linktext|樸|lang=zh}}|p=pǔ, pú|w=p'u|l=uncut wood}}), the "uncarved log", which represents the "original nature&nbsp;... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.{{sfnp|Kraemer|1986|p=286}} It is usually referred to as a state one may return to.{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=70}}

=== ''Wu wei'' ===
{{main|Wu wei}}
[[file:Butcher Zhuangzi.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the parable of the adept butcher Ding from the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]. Butcher Ding was so expert at butchering a carcass, that he barely had to use any force to cut the meat.]]
The term ''wu wei'' constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.<ref name=voorst170>{{harvp|Van Voorst |2005 |p=170}}</ref> ''Wei'' refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while ''wu'' carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Standard translations are nonaction, effortless action, action without intent, noninterference, and nonintervention.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=85}}<ref name=voorst170/> The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": an action without action.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=60}} Kohn writes that ''wuwei'' refers to "letting go of egoistic concerns" and "to abstain from forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disruption in favor of gentleness, adaptation, and ease."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21}}

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature and the effortless way it flows around obstacles.{{sfn|Oldmeadow|2007|p=109}} Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the ''[[I Ching]]'', proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony, and [[unintended consequences]] may more likely result rather than the willed outcome.{{sfnp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}} Thus, the ''Tao Te Ching'' says: "act of things and you will ruin them. Grasp for things and you will lose them. Therefore the sage acts with inaction and has no ruin, lets go of grasping and has no loss."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21}}

Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural way of the universe.{{sfnp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}} Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=137}}<ref>Living in the Tao: The Effortless Path of Self-Discovery, Mantak Chia</ref> "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."<ref name=voorst170/>

===Aspects of self (xing, xin, and ming)===
The Taoist view of the self is holistic and rejects the idea of a separate individualized [[self]]. As Russell Kirkland writes, Taoists "generally assume that one's 'self' cannot be understood or fulfilled without reference to other persons, and to the broader set of realities in which all persons are naturally and properly embedded."{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=190}}

In Taoism, one's innate or fundamental nature (xing) is ultimately the Tao expressing or manifesting itself as an embodied person. Innate nature is connected with one's heartmind (xin), which refers to consciousness, the heart, and one's spirit.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} The focus of Taoist psychology is the [[Xin (heart-mind)|heartmind (xin)]], the intellectual and emotional center (zhong) of a person. It is associated with the chest cavity and the physical heart, as well as with emotions, thoughts, consciousness, and the storehouse of spirit (shen).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=115}} When the heartmind is unstable and separated from the Tao, it is called the ordinary heartmind (suxin). On the other hand, the original heartmind (benxin) pervades Tao and is constant and peaceful.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=116}}

The ''Neiye'' (ch.14) calls this pure original heart-mind the "inner heartmind", "an awareness that precedes language", and "a lodging place of the [[numinous]]".{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=116–117}} Later Taoist sources also refer to it by other terms like "awakened nature" (wuxing), "original nature" (benxing), "original spirit" (yuanshen), and "scarlet palace".{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=117}} This pure heartmind is seen as being characterized by clarity and stillness (qingjing), purity, pure yang, spiritual insight, and emptiness.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=117}}

Taoists see life (sheng) as an expression of the Tao. The Tao is seen as granting each person a ''[[Ming yun|ming]]'' (life destiny), which is one's corporeal existence, one's body and vitality.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} Generally speaking, Taoist cultivation seeks a holistic [[Psychosomatic medicine|psychosomatic]] form of training that is described as "dual cultivation of innate nature and life-destiny" (''xingming shuanxiu'').{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} Taoism believes in a "pervasive spirit world that is both interlocked with and separate from the world of humans."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salamone |first=Frank A. |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-94180-6 |editor-last=Levinson |editor-first=David |location=New York |page=430}}</ref>

The cultivation of innate nature is often associated with the practice of stillness (jinggong) or quiet meditation, while the cultivation of life-destiny generally revolves around movement based practices (dongong) like [[daoyin]] and health and longevity practices ([[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]]).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=109}}

=== The Taoist body ===
{{See also|Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)}}
[[file:NeijingTu1.jpg|thumb|The [[Neijing Tu]], a diagram which illustrates the complex Taoist schema of the body as a way to aid practitioners of inner cultivation.]]

Many Taoist practices work with ancient Chinese understandings of the body, its organs and parts, "elixir fields" ([[Dantian|dantien]]), inner substances (such as "essence" or jing), animating forces (like the [[hun and po]]), and [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] ([[qi]] channels). The complex Taoist schema of the body and its [[subtle body]] components contains many parallels with [[Traditional Chinese medicine]] and is used for health practices as well as for somatic and spiritual transformation (through [[neidan]] – "psychosomatic transmutation" or "internal alchemy").{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=110-111, 122–125}} Taoist physical cultivation rely on purifying and transforming the body's qi (vital breath, energy) in various ways such as dieting and meditation.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=50}}

According to Livia Kohn, qi is "the cosmic energy that pervades all. The concrete aspect of Tao, qi is the material force of the universe, the basic stuff of nature."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=51}} According to the ''Zhuangzi,'' "human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=51}} Everyone has some amount of qi and can gain and lose qi in various ways. Therefore, Taoists hold that through various qi cultivation methods they can harmonize their qi, and thus improve health and [[longevity]], and even attain magic powers, [[Harmonious Society|social harmony]], and immortality.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=50}} The ''[[Neiye]]'' (Inward Training) is one of the earliest texts that teach qi cultivation methods.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=53}}

Qi is one of the [[Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)|Three Treasures]], which is a specifically Taoist schema of the main elements in Taoist physical practices like [[qigong]] and [[neidan]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=112}} The three are: [[Jing (Chinese medicine)|jing]] (精, essence, the foundation for one's vitality), [[traditional Chinese medicine#Qi|qi]] and [[Shen (Chinese religion)|shén]] (神, spirit, subtle consciousness, a capacity to connect with the subtle spiritual reality).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=112}}<ref name="Blofeld-2000">Blofeld, John. ''Taoism''. Shambhala, 2000.</ref>''<ref name="Gurdon-2002e">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=397 |oclc=46661540}}</ref>'' These three are further associated with the three "elixir fields" ([[Dantian|dantien]]) and the organs in different ways.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=125}}''<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" />''

The body in Taoist [[political philosophy]] was important and their differing views on it and humanity's place in the universe were a point of distinction from Confucian [[politician]]s, [[writer]]s, and [[Pundit|political commentators]].<ref name="Pearson-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Patricia O'Connell |title=World History: Our Human Story |last2=Holdren |first2=John |date=May 2021 |publisher=Sheridan Kentucky |isbn=978-1-60153-123-0 |location=Versailles, Kentucky |pages=102–103}}</ref> Some Taoists viewed ancestors as merely corpses that were improperly revered and respect for the dead as irrelevant and others within groups that followed these beliefs viewed almost all traditions as worthless.<ref name="Pearson-2021" />

===Ethics===
{{Main|Three Treasures (Taoism)}}
[[file:Fishing Zhuangzi.png|thumb|Illustration of the tortoise in the mud parable from the ''Zhuangzi''. When some officials came to offer Zhuang zhou a job at court, he replied he preferred to continue to live a life of solitary simplicity, like a turtle who prefers to live in the mud than to be displayed at court.]]
Daoist ethics tends to emphasize various themes from the Taoist classics, such as naturalness (''pu''), spontaneity (''ziran''), [[simplicity]], [[detachment (philosophy)|detachment from desires]], and most important of all, ''[[wu wei]]''.{{sfnp|Chan|1963}} The classic Daoist view is that humans are originally and naturally aligned with Tao, thus their original nature is inherently good. It emphasizes doing things that are natural, following the Tao, which is a cosmic force that flows through all things and binds and releases them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark |first=Emily |date=2016-02-22 |title=Taoism |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Taoism/ |access-date=2024-04-27 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> However, one can fall away from this due to personal habits, desires, and social conditions. Returning to one's nature requires active attunement through Daoist practice and ethical cultivation.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=147}}

Some popular Daoist beliefs, such as the early [[Shangqing School|Shangqing school]], do not believe this and believe that some people are irredeemably evil and destined to be so.<ref name="Carrasco-1999">{{Cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=691 |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}</ref> Many Taoist movements from around the time [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] elements started being syncretized with Daoism had an extremely negative view of foreigners, referring to them as ''[[Hua–Yi distinction|yi]]'' or "barbarians", and some of these thought of foreigners as people who do not feel "human feelings" and who never live out the correct norms of conduct until they became Taoist.<ref name="Zurcher-1980">{{Cite journal |last=Zürcher |first=Erik |date=1980 |title=Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism: A Survey of Scriptural Evidence |journal=T'oung Pao |volume=66 |issue=1/3 |page=108 |doi=10.1163/156853280X00039 |jstor=4528195 |issn=0082-5433}}</ref> At this time, [[China]] was widely viewed by Taoists as a holy land because of influence from the Chinese public that viewed being born in China as a privilege and that outsiders were enemies.<ref name="Zurcher-1980" /> Preserving a sense of "Chineseness" in the country and rewarding [[Nativism (politics)|nativist]] policies such as the building of the [[Great Wall of China]] was important to many Taoist groups.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spectacular China |publisher=Könemann |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-8290-1077-1 |editor-last=Guangwei |editor-first=He |location=Cologne |page=22 |translator-last=Wusun |translator-first=Lin |editor-last2=Hualing |editor-first2=Tong |editor-last3=Wenzhen |editor-first3=Yang |editor-last4=Zhenguo |editor-first4=Chang |editor-last5=Zeru |editor-first5=Li |editor-last6=Ruicheng |editor-first6=Dong |editor-last7=Weijan |editor-first7=Gong |translator-last2=Zhongping |translator-first2=Wu}}</ref>

Foreigners who joined these Taoist sects were made to repent for their sins in another life that caused them to be born "in the frontier wilds" because of Buddhist ideas of reincarnation coming into their [[doctrine]]s.<ref name="Zurcher-1980" /> Some Daoist movements viewed [[human nature]] neutrally.<ref name="Stefon-2016" /> However, some of the movements that were dour or skeptical about human nature did not believe that evil is permanent and believed that evil people can become good. Korean Daoists tended to think extremely positively of human nature.<ref name="Carrasco-1999a">{{Cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=1058 |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}</ref>

Some of the most important virtues in Taoism are the ''Three Treasures'' or ''Three Jewels'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=三寶|p=sānbǎo}}). These are: ''ci'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=慈|p=cí}}, usually translated as ''[[compassion]]''), ''jian'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=儉|p=jiǎn|s=|t=}}, usually translated as ''[[moderation]]''), and ''bugan wei tianxia xian'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=不敢爲天下先|p=bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān|l=not daring to act as first under the heavens}}, but usually translated as ''[[humility]]''). [[Arthur Waley]], applying them to the [[Political sociology|socio-political]] sphere, translated them as: "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".<ref>{{harvp|Waley|1958|p=225}}</ref>

Taoism also adopted the Buddhist doctrines of [[karma]] and [[reincarnation]] into its religious ethical system.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=123}} Medieval Taoist thought developed the idea that ethics was overseen by a celestial administration that kept records of people's actions and their fate, as well as handed out rewards and punishments through particular celestial administrators.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=99}}

In its original form, the religion does not involve political affairs or complex rituals; on the contrary, it encourages the avoidance of public responsibility and the search for a vision of a spiritual transcendent world.<ref>{{Citation |title=Copyright |date=2009-01-01 |work=The Chinese Consumer Market |pages=iv |editor-last=Tang |editor-first=Lei |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781843343325500139 |access-date=2024-04-27 |series=Chandos Asian Studies Series |publisher=Chandos Publishing |doi=10.1016/b978-1-84334-332-5.50013-9 |isbn=978-1-84334-332-5}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=April 2024|reason=The original citation appears to be at the wrong page}}

===Soteriology and religious goals===
[[file:White Cloud Temple (9868245123).jpg|thumb|Illustrations of Taoist immortals at the White Cloud Temple]]
[[File:The Daoist immortal Lü Dongbin crossing Lake Dongting.jpeg|thumb|''The Taoist immortal [[Lü Dongbin]] crossing Lake Dongting'', dated to the [[Song dynasty]].]]

Taoists have different religious goals that include Taoist conceptions of sagehood (''[[zhenren]]''), spiritual self-cultivation, a happy afterlife or longevity and some form of [[immortality]] ([[Xian (Taoism)|''xian'']], variously understood as a kind of transcendent post-mortem state of the spirit).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=175-183}}<ref name="Gurdon-2002a">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=395 |oclc=46661540}}</ref>

Taoists' views about what happens in the afterlife tend to include the soul becoming a part of the cosmos<ref name="NatGeo-2023" /> (which was often thought of as an illusionary place where ''[[qi]]'' and physical matter were thought of as being the same in a way held together by the microcosm of the spirits of the human body and the macrocosm of the universe itself, represented and embodied by the [[Three Pure Ones]]),<ref name="Gurdon-2002a" /> somehow aiding the spiritual functions of nature or ''[[Tian]]'' after death or being [[Salvation|saved]] by either achieving spiritual immortality in an afterlife or becoming a ''xian'' who can appear in the human world at will,<ref name="Gurdon-2002c">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=392, 395 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> but normally lives in another plane. "[S]acred forests and[/or] mountains"<ref name="Gurdon-2002d">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=396 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> or a [[Yin and yang|yin-yang]],<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2017-11-16 |title=青山王的秘書長－陰陽司公 {{!}} 保庇網 |url=https://www.nownews.com/news/5622536 |access-date=2023-05-09 |website=NOWnews今日新聞 |language=zh-Hant-TW |archive-date=9 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509131835/https://www.nownews.com/news/5622536 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wilkinson-1999">{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Philip |title=Illustrated Dictionary of Religions |publisher=[[DK (publisher)|DK]] |year=1999 |isbn=0-7894-4711-8 |editor-last=Spilling |editor-first=Michael |edition=First American |location=New York |pages=67–68, 70 |author-link=Philip Wilkinson (author) |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Sophie |editor-last3=Dent |editor-first3=Marion}}</ref> yin, yang, or [[Tao]] realm<ref name="Wilkinson-1999" /> inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even the virtuous Confucius and [[Confucianism|Confucianists]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |pages=467–468}}</ref> such as the mental realm sometimes called "the [[Tian|Heavens]]" where higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang"<ref name="Minford-2018">{{Cite book |last=Minford |first=John |title=Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-670-02498-8 |location=New York |pages=ix-x |language=en-US |author-link=John Minford}}</ref> were all possibilities for a potential ''xian'' to be reborn in. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] who eat yin and yang energy and ride [[cloud]]s and their ''[[qi]]''.<ref name="Minford-2018" />

More specifically, possibilities for "the spirit of the body" include "join[ing] the universe after death",<ref name="NatGeo-2023">{{Cite web |date=January 30, 2023 |title=Taoism |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/taoism |access-date=2023-04-30 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |archive-date=26 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426232309/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/taoism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> exploring<ref name="EB-2023" /> or serving various functions in parts of ''tiān<ref name="Chua-2007">{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=65 |oclc=123079516}}</ref>'' or other spiritual worlds,<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref name="Lagerwey-2018">{{Cite web |last=Lagerwey |first=John |date=2018-05-21 |title=Xian |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/asia/chinese-political-geography/xian |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=[[Encyclopedia.com]]}}</ref> or becoming a ''xian'' who can do one or more of those things.<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref name="Chua-2007" />

Taoist ''xian'' are often seen as being [[Eternal youth|eternally young]] because "of their life being totally at one with the Tao of [[nature]]."<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |page=20}}</ref> They are also often seen as being made up of "pure breath and light" and as being able to [[Shapeshifting|shapeshift]], and some Taoists believed their afterlife natural "paradises" were palaces of heaven.<ref name="Murrell-2017">{{Cite journal |last=Murrell |first=Jasmyn |date=January 2017 |title=Virtuous Life, Honored Afterlife and the Evolution of Confucianism |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=history-in-the-making |journal=History in the Making |publisher=[[California State University]] |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=89, 97 |access-date=3 June 2023 |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603143550/https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=history-in-the-making |url-status=live }}</ref>

Taoists who sought to become one of the many different types of immortals, such as ''xian'' or ''zhenren'', wanted to "ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality".<ref name="Salamone-2004" />

In the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen]] school of [[Wang Chongyang]], the goal is to become a sage, which he equates with being a "spiritual immortal" (''shen xien'') and with the attainment of "clarity and stillness" (''qingjing'') through the integration of "inner nature" (xing) and "worldly reality" (ming).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=183}}

Those who know the Tao, who flow with the natural way of the Tao and thus embody the patterns of the Tao are called sages or "perfected persons" ([[zhenren]]).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=80}} This is what is often considered salvation in Taoist [[soteriology]].<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=zhenren |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/zhenren |access-date=2023-04-23 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lagerway |first=John |date=2005 |title=Zhenren |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/zhenren |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=[[Encyclopedia.com]]}}</ref> They often are depicted as living simple lives, as craftsmen or [[hermit]]s. In other cases, they are depicted as the ideal rulers which practice ruling through non-intervention and under which nations prosper peacefully.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23}} Sages are the highest humans, mediators between heaven and earth and the best guides on the Taoist path. They act naturally and simply, with a pure mind and with wuwei. They may have supernatural powers and bring good fortune and peace.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23-24}}

Some sages are also considered to have become one of the [[Xian (Taoism)|immortals (xian)]] through their mastery of the Tao. After shedding their mortal form, spiritual immortals may have many superhuman abilities like flight<ref name="Lagerwey-2018" /> and are often said to live in heavenly realms.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=184}}<ref name="EB-2023" />

The sages as thus because they have attained the primary goal of Taoism: a union with the Tao and harmonization or alignment with its patterns and flows.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=162-163}} This experience is one of being attuned to the Tao and to our own original nature, which already has a natural capacity for resonance ([[ganying]]) with Tao.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=163}} This is the main goal that all Daoist practices are aiming towards and can be felt in various ways, such as a sense of psychosomatic vitality and aliveness as well as stillness and a "true joy" (zhenle) or "celestial joy" that remains unaffected by mundane concerns like gain and loss.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=163-166}}

The Taoist quest for immortality was inspired by Confucian emphasis on [[filial piety]] and how [[Ancestor veneration in China|worshipped ancestors]] were thought to exist after death.<ref name="Murrell-2017" />

Becoming an immortal through the power of yin-yang and heaven, but also specifically Taoist interpretations of the Tao, was sometimes thought of as possible in [[Chinese folk religion]],<ref name="Wilkinson-1999" /> and Taoist thoughts on immortality were sometimes drawn from Confucian views on heaven and its status as an afterlife that permeates the mortal world as well.

=== Cosmology ===
{{Further|School of Naturalists|Qi|Taoism and death}}
[[File:ZhoushiTaijitu.png|thumb|[[Zhou Dunyi]]'s (1017–1073 CE) cosmological ''[[Taijitu]]'' diagram. The red circle is the formless [[Wuji (philosophy)|Wuji]] which gives birth to "the two" – yin and yang (i.e. [[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]).]]

Taoist cosmology is [[Cyclic model|cyclic]]—the universe is seen as being in constant change, with various forces and energies (qi) affecting each other in different complex patterns.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=80}}<ref name="harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7}}</ref><ref name="Zai 2015">Dr Zai, J. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ ''Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417051124/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover1 |date=17 April 2016 }}. Ultravisum, 2015.</ref> Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the [[School of Naturalists]].<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 62"/> Taoist cosmology focuses on the impersonal transformations (zaohua) of the universe, which are spontaneous and unguided.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=87}}

[[Livia Kohn]] explains the basic Taoist cosmological theory as:{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=22}}

<blockquote>the root of creation Tao rested in deep chaos (ch. 42). Next, it evolved into the One, a concentrated state cosmic unity that is full of creative potential and often described in ''[[I Ching]]'' terms as the [[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]. The One then brought forth "the Two", the two energies yin and yang, which in turn merged in harmony to create the next level of existence, "the Three" (yin-yang combined), from which the myriad beings came forth. From original oneness, the world thus continued to move into ever greater states of distinction and differentiation.</blockquote>

The main distinction in Taoist cosmology is that between ''[[yin and yang]]'', which applies to various sets of complementary ideas: bright – dark, light – heavy, soft – hard, strong – weak, above – below, ruler – minister, male – female, and so on.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=81}} Cosmically, these two forces exist in mutual harmony and interdependence.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=82}} Yin and yang are further divided into five phases ([[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wu Xing]], or five materials): minor yang, major yang, yin/yang, minor yin, major yin. Each of these correlates with a specific substance: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water respectively.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=83}} This schema is used in many different ways in Taoist thought and practice, from nourishing life ([[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]]) and medicine to astrology and divination.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=85}}

Taoists also generally see all things as being animated and constituted by ''[[qi]]'' (vital air, subtle breath), which is seen as a force that circulates throughout the universe and throughout human bodies (as both air in the lungs and as a subtle breath throughout the body's [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] and organs).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=94}} Qi is in constant transformation between its condensed state (life) and diluted state (potential).<ref name="Robinet 1997, pp. 7-8">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=8}}</ref> These two different states of qi are embodiments of yin and yang,<ref name="Robinet 1997, pp. 7-8" /> two complementary forces that constantly play against and with each other and where one cannot exist without the other.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=9}}

Taoist texts present various creation stories and [[Cosmogony|cosmogonies]]. Classic cosmogonies are [[Nontheism|nontheistic]], presenting a natural undirected process in which an apophatic undifferentiated potentiality (called wuwuji, "without non-differentiation") naturally unfolds into [[Wuji (philosophy)|wuji]] (primordial oneness, "non-differentiation"), which then evolves into yin-yang ([[Taijitu|taiji]]) and then into the myriad beings, as in the ''Tao Te Ching''.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=115}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=88}} Later medieval models included the idea of a [[Creator deity|creator God]] (mainly seen as Lord Lao), representing order and creativity.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=115}} Taoist cosmology influences Taoist soteriology, which holds that one can "return to the root" (guigen) of the universe (and of ourselves), which is also the Tao—the impersonal source (yuan) of all things.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=90}}

In Taoism, human beings are seen as a [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm]] of the universe,<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 103"/> and thus the cosmological forces, like the five phases, are also present in the form of the [[zang-fu]] organs.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=825}}</ref> Another common belief is that there are various gods that reside in human bodies.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=128}} As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.{{sfnp|Occhiogrosso|1994|p=171}}

Another important element of Taoist cosmology is the use of [[Chinese astrology]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=80}}

===Theology===
[[File:Portraits of Jade Emperor and the Heavenly Kings.JPG|thumb|Chinese painting of the [[Jade Emperor]] and [[Four Heavenly Kings|the Heavenly Kings]].]]
[[file:Yu Zhiding - Xi Wangmu (The Queen Mother of the West).jpg|thumb|[[Queen Mother of the West|Xi Wangmu]] (The Queen Mother of the West).]]
{{Main|Taoist theology}}
{{See also|Xian (Taoism)|Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)}}
Taoist [[theology]] can be defined as [[Apophatic theology|apophatic]], given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable nature of the Tao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] concepts of [[God]]. Nearly all the sects share this core belief.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=1}}

Arguments do exist the [[monotheistic]] concepts in Taoism.<ref>White, R.J. Teaching the Dao: monotheism, transcendence, and intercultural philosophy. Int. Commun. Chin. Cult 8, 271–287 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40636-021-00225-1</ref> However, Taoism does include many deities and spirits and thus can also be considered [[Animism|animistic]] and [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] in a secondary sense (since they are considered to be emanations from the impersonal and nameless ultimate principle).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=99-100}} Some Taoist theology presents the [[Three Pure Ones]] at the top of the [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of deities, which was a hierarchy emanating from the Tao.<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[Laozi|Laozi (Lao Tzu)]] is considered the incarnation of one of the three and worshiped as the ancestral founder of Taoism.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=63}}<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p= 41}}</ref>

The gods and immortals（{{lang|zh|神仙}}） believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian" (immortals). "Gods" are also called [[Deity|deities]] and there are many kinds, that is, god of heaven（{{lang|zh|天神}}), god of ground（{{lang|zh|地祇}}), wuling（{{lang|zh|物灵}}: animism, the spirit of all things), god of netherworld（{{lang|zh|地府神灵}}), god of human body（{{lang|zh|人体之神}}), god of human ghost（{{lang|zh|人鬼之神}}）etc. Among these "gods" such as god of heaven（{{lang|zh|天神}}), god of ground（{{lang|zh|地祇}}), god of netherworld（{{lang|zh|阴府神灵}}),  god of human body（{{lang|zh|人体之神}}） are innate beings. "Xian" (immortals) is acquired the cultivation of the Tao，persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.<ref>{{cite web |last1=武当山道教协会 |first1=武当山道教协会 |script-title=zh:道教神仙分类 |url=http://www.wdsdjxh.com/detail.php?id=51 |access-date=2024-01-28 |archive-date=2024-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126153241/http://www.wdsdjxh.com/detail.php?id=51 }}</ref>

Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology.<ref>{{harvp|Segal|2006|p=50}}</ref> Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=92}}</ref> Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the [[Jade Emperor]] ([[Yü-Huang]] or [[Yü-Di]]), one of the Three Pure Ones, as the highest God. Historical Taoist figures, and people who are considered to have become immortals (''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]''), are also venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|date=2018|title=Cultural additivity: behavioural insights from the interaction of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in folktales |journal=Palgrave Communications|volume=4|issue=1|page=143|doi=10.1057/s41599-018-0189-2|s2cid=54444540 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Despite these hierarchies of deities, most conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western sense of [[theism]].{{Explain|reason=I have found quite a bit of information on Taoist gods, although this appears to be correct as well. It just needs a bit of expanding.|date=May 2023}} Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu theistic sense.{{sfnp|Martinson|1987|pp=168–169}}{{sfnp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}}