Editing Sumerian language (section)

===Nominal morphology===

==== Noun phrases ====
The Sumerian [[noun]] is typically a one or two-syllable root ({{lang|sux|𒅆|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|igi}} "eye", {{lang|sux|𒂍|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|e<sub>2</sub>}} "house, household", 𒎏 {{lang|sux-latn|nin}} "lady"), although there are also some roots with three syllables like {{lang|sux|𒆠𒇴|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|šakanka}} "market". There are two semantically predictable [[grammatical gender]]s, which have traditionally been called animate and inanimate, although these names do not express their membership exactly, as explained [[#Gender|below]].

The [[adjective]]s and other [[modifiers]] follow the noun ({{lang|sux|𒈗𒈤|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|lugal maḫ}} "great king"). The noun itself is not inflected; rather, grammatical markers attach to the [[noun phrase]] as a whole, in a certain order. Typically, that order would be:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!noun
!adjective 
!numeral
!genitive phrase 
!relative clause
!possessive marker
!plural marker
!case marker
|}
An example may be:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kausen, Ernst. 2006. ''Sumerische Sprache''. p.9 |url=http://homepages.fh-giessen.de/kausen/wordtexte/Sumerisch.doc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927035904/http://homepages.fh-giessen.de/kausen/wordtexte/Sumerisch.doc |archive-date=2009-09-27 |access-date=2006-02-06}}</ref> {{interlinear|lang=sux|dig̃ir gal-gal-g̃u-ene-ra|god great-REDUP-1.POSS-PL.AN-DAT|"for my great gods"
| top = 𒀭𒃲𒃲𒈬𒉈𒊏<br />
<small>dig̃ir gal-gal-g̃u<sub>10</sub>-ne-ra</small>{{efn|Here and in the following, the first line in the interlinear glosses shows a cuneiform spelling of a Sumerian word, phrase or sentence, the second line (in a <small>small</small> font) shows the way in which that spelling is conventionally [[transliteration|transliterated]] into the Latin alphabet, the third one (in ''italics'') shows a segmentation of the Sumerian phrases into [[morpheme]]s, the fourth one contains a [[Interlinear gloss|gloss]] for each of the morphemes, and the fifth one displays a translation into English.}}
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

The possessive, plural and case markers are traditionally referred to as "[[suffixes]]", but have recently also been described as [[enclitic]]s<ref>Zólyomi, Gábor, 1993: ''Voice and Topicalization in Sumerian''. PhD Dissertation [http://www.assziriologia.hu/downloads/gzolyomiphd.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001222819/http://www.assziriologia.hu/downloads/gzolyomiphd.pdf|date=2008-10-01}}</ref> or [[postpositions]].<ref name="johnson">Johnson, Cale, 2004: ''In the Eye of the Beholder: Quantificational, Pragmatic and Aspectual Features of the *bí- Verbal Formation in Sumerian'', Dissertation. UCLA, Los Angeles. P.83-84 [http://cdli.ucla.edu/staff/johnson/Johnson_diss_2004.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622050103/http://cdli.ucla.edu/staff/johnson/Johnson_diss_2004.pdf|date=2013-06-22}}</ref>

===== Gender =====
The two genders have been variously called [[Animacy|animate and inanimate]],<ref>Thomsen (2001: 49)</ref><ref name="Rubio">Rubio (2007: 1329)</ref><ref>Civil (2020: 43)</ref><ref>Michalowski 2008</ref> [[animacy|human and non-human]],<ref>Jagersma (2010: 101-102)</ref><ref>Zólyomi (2017: 15)</ref> or personal/person and impersonal/non-person.<ref name="Foxvog">Foxvog (2016: 22)</ref><ref>Edzard (2003: 29)</ref> Their assignment is semantically predictable: the first gender includes humans and gods, while the second one includes animals, plants, non-living objects, abstract concepts, and groups of humans. Since the second gender includes animals, the use of the terms animate and inanimate is somewhat misleading<ref name="Foxvog" /> and conventional,<ref name="Rubio" /> but it is most common in the literature, so it will be maintained in this article.

There are some minor deviations from the gender assignment rules, for example:

* The word for {{lang|sux|𒀩|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|alan}} "statue" may be treated as animate.
* Words for slaves such as {{lang|sux|𒊩𒆳|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|geme<sub>2</sub>}} "slave woman" and {{lang|sux|𒊕|italic=no}} {{lang|sux-latn|sag̃}} "head", used in its secondary sense of "slave", may be treated as inanimate.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 102-105)</ref>
* In [[fable]]-like contexts, which occur frequently in Sumerian proverbs, animals are usually treated as animate.<ref>Hayes 2000: 49-50</ref>

===== Number =====
The plural marker proper is (𒂊)𒉈 /-(e)ne/.{{efn|The initial vowel /e/ appears only after a consonant and is absent after a vowel.<ref name="foxvog23">Foxvog (2016: 23)</ref> Jagersma believes that it contracts with a preceding vowel, while lengthening it.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 107)</ref> In Old Babylonian Sumerian, spellings suggesting such assimilation are found: 𒇽𒅇𒉈 ''lu<sub>2</sub>-u<sub>3</sub>-ne'' "men".<ref name=foxvog23/>}} It is used only with nouns of the animate gender and its use is optional. It is often omitted when other parts of the clause indicate the plurality of the referent.<ref name=":24">Jagersma (2010: 109-113)</ref> Thus, it is not used if the noun is modified by a numeral (''𒇽''𒁹𒁹𒁹 ''lu<sub>2</sub> eš<sub>5</sub>'' "three men"). It has also been observed that until the Ur III period, the marker generally isn't used in a noun phrase in the [[absolutive case]],<ref name=":53">Attinger (2009: 22)</ref><ref name=":50">Sallaberger (2023: 47)</ref><ref name=":51">Jagersma (2010: 111-112)</ref> unless this is necessary for disambiguation.<ref name=":50" /><ref name=":51" /> Instead, the plurality of the absolutive participant is commonly expressed only by the form of the verb in the clause:<ref name=":51" /><ref name=":53" /> e.g. ''𒇽𒁀𒀄𒀄𒌍 lu<sub>2</sub> ba-'''zaḫ<sub>3</sub>-zaḫ<sub>3</sub>-eš''''' "the men ran away", 𒇽𒈬𒅇𒆪𒁉𒌍 ''lu<sub>2</sub> mu-u<sub>3</sub>-dab<sub>5</sub>-be<sub>2</sub>-'''eš''''' "I caught the men". The plural marker is not used when referring to a group of people, because a group of people is treated as inanimate; e.g. 𒀳 ''engar'' "farmer" with no plural marker may refer to "(the group of) farmers".<ref name=":24" />

As the following example shows, the marker is appended to the end of the phrase, even after a relative clause:<ref name=":24" />

{{interlinear|lu e-a ba-dab-a-(e)ne|man house-in MID-catch-NMLZ-PL.AN<!--Jagersma (2010: 595, ex.47, 599, ex. 73, but cf. p.110, ex. 28) reconstructs an underlying plural agreement suffix {-eš} in the verb before the nominalizer in clauses where, unlike this one, the head of the relative clause is an ergative participant. It is, however, not observable in the graphic form of the examples.-->|"the men who were caught in the house"
| top = 𒇽𒂍𒀀𒁀𒆪𒁀𒉈<br />
<small>lu<sub>2</sub> e<sub>2</sub>-a ba-dab<sub>5</sub>-ba-ne</small>
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

Likewise, the plural marker is usually (albeit not always) added only once when a whole series of coordinated nouns have plural reference:<ref name=":24" />

{{interlinear|engar sipad šukuř-ene|farmer shepherd fisherman-PL.AN|"farmers, shepherds and fishermen"
| top = 𒀳𒉺𒇻𒋗𒄩𒂊𒉈<br />
<small>engar sipad šu-ku<sub>6</sub>-e-ne</small>
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

Another way in which a kind of plurality is expressed is by means of reduplication of the noun: 𒀭𒀭 ''dig̃ir-dig̃ir'' "gods", 𒌈𒌈 ''ib<sub>2</sub>-ib<sub>2</sub>'' "hips". However, this construction is usually considered to have a more specialized meaning, variously interpreted as totality ("all the gods", "both of my hips")<ref name=":25">Thomsen (2001: 61)</ref><ref name="Attinger 2009: 23">Attinger (2009: 23)</ref> or distribution/separateness ("each of the gods taken separately").<ref name=":26">Jagersma (2010: 114-116)</ref><ref name="foxvog23"/> An especially frequently occurring reduplicated word, 𒆳𒆳 ''kur-kur'' "foreign lands", may have simply plural meaning,<ref name=":26" /> and in very late usage, the meaning of the reduplication in general might be simple plurality.<ref name=":25" />

At least a few adjectives (notably 𒃲 ''gal'' "great" and 𒌉 ''tur'' "small") are also reduplicated when the noun they modify has plural reference: 𒀀𒃲𒃲 ''a gal-gal'' "the great waters".<ref name=":28" /> In that case, the noun itself is not reduplicated.<ref>Sallaberger (2020: 46), Attinger (2009: 23)</ref> This is sometimes interpreted as an expression of simple plurality,<ref>Edzard (2003: 25, 31-32), Jagersma (2010: 270-271), Rubio (2007: 1329), Mihalowski (2004). Thomsen (2001: 65) holds the minority view that they express a superlative.</ref> while a minority view is that the meaning of these forms is not purely plural, but rather the same as that of noun reduplication.<ref name="foxvog23"/><ref>Attinger (2009: 23) glosses ''ensi<sup>2</sup> gal-gal'' as "''all'' the great [[Ensi (Sumerian)|ensi]].</ref>

Two other ways of expressing plurality are characteristic only of very late Sumerian usage and have made their way into [[Sumerogram]]s used in writing Akkadian and other languages. One is used with inanimate nouns and consists of the modification of the noun with the adjective 𒄭𒀀 ''ḫi-a'' "various" ({{lit|mixed}}), e.g. 𒇻𒄭𒀀 ''udu ḫi-a'' "sheep".<ref>Thomsen (2001: 62)</ref> The other is adding the 3rd person plural form of the enclitic copula 𒈨𒌍 ''-me-eš'' to a noun (𒈗𒈨𒌍 ''lugal-me-eš'' "kings", originally "they (who) are kings").<ref>Thomsen (2001: 63), Michalowski (2004)</ref>

===== Case =====

====== Case markers ======
The generally recognized case markers are:<ref>Rubio (2007: 1329), Foxvog (2016: 59), Thomsen (2001: 88), Jagersma (2010: 137), Zólyomi (2017: 40)</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!case
!ending
!most common spelling<ref>Here and in the following, vowel-initial morphemes are denoted in parentheses with the cuneiform sign for the corresponding vowel-initial syllable, but in actual spelling, signs for consonant-vowel sequences are typically used after consonant-final stems.</ref>
!approximate English equivalents and function<ref>Jagersma (2010: 137-188, 428-441)</ref>
|-
|[[absolutive case|absolutive]]
|/-Ø/ 
|
|[[Intransitive verb|intransitive]] subject or [[Transitive verb|transitive]] object
|-
|[[ergative case|ergative]]
|/-e/{{efn|As is generally the case with the vowel -/e/, the vowel of the ergative ending can contract with a preceding vowel, lengthening it: ''lu<sub>2</sub>-e'' > 𒇽𒅇 ''lu<sub>2</sub>-u<sub>3</sub>'' "man (erg.)". In early texts, the length of the vowel isn't marked at all, leaving the ending with no reflection in the spelling.}} (primarily with animates){{efn|According to Jagersma, this is a tendency due to semantic reasons, but not a strict rule of the language.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 154)</ref>}}
|(𒂊 ''-e'')
|transitive subject
|-
|[[allative case|directive]]{{Efn|Also known traditionally as the "locative-terminative".<ref>Thomsen (2001: 95), Foxvog (2016: 84)</ref> It has been pointed out that the term "directive" is misleading, since this Sumerian case simply expresses contiguity, which may or may ''not'' be the result of movement in a certain direction. Based on its meaning, it could be called [[adessive]],<ref>Attinger (2009: 28)</ref> but it ''can'' also express the destination of a movement, making the meaning [[allative]].<ref name=zolyomi_inessive>Zólyomi (2017: 203)</ref> Similarly, the Sumerian locative expresses internal location both as a stative condition ([[inessive]] meaning) or as the result of a movement ([[illative]] meaning).<ref name=zolyomi_inessive/>}}
|/-e/ (only with inanimates){{efn|With animates, the dative is usually used instead.<ref>Zólyomi (2017: 40)</ref>}}
|(𒂊 ''-e'')
|"in(to) contact with", "at", "upon", "for", "as for"; [[Causative|causee]]
|-
|[[genitive case|genitive]]
|/-a(k)/, /-(k)/{{efn|The final consonant /k/ appears only in front of a following vowel (in the spelling, and at least by Ur III times in pronunciation as well<ref name=jagersma140/>); see the section on ''Consonants'' above for this phenomenon. Thus, we find 𒈗𒆷 ''lugal-la'' for {lugal-ak} "of the king", but 𒈗𒆷𒄰 ''lugal-la-kam'' for {lugal-ak-am} "(it) is of the king". Moreover, if /k/ is preserved, the preceding vowel often seems to be omitted at least in writing, especially after /l/, /m/, /n/, /r/, /s/, /š/ and /ḫ/: 𒈗𒄰 ''lugal-kam''.<ref>Sallaberger (2023: 43)</ref> Conversely, the initial vowel /a/ of the genitive marker appears to be dropped or assimilated after a preceding stem-final vowel in [[content words]]: e.g. {dumu-ak} is written simply 𒌉 ''dumu'', presumably standing for */dumu(k)/.<ref name=Foxvog39/> The same appears to happen after the plural marker 𒂊𒉈 ''-e-ne'' and the plural possessive pronominal enclitics 𒈨 ''-me'' "our", 𒍪𒉈𒉈 ''-zu-ne-ne'' "your (pl.)" and (𒀀/𒂊)𒉈𒉈 ''-a/e-ne-ne'' "their", so that the sequences of these morphemes and the genitive end in -/e(k)/. However, there is some disagreement on the treatment of content words and the nature of the whole process; see the following footnote on this matter. Finally, the genitive marker occasionally seems to be simply omitted in writing,<ref name=jagersma140/> especially after a fricative.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 145)</ref>}}{{efn|In front of the vowel /a/ of the genitive marker -/ak/ and the locative marker /a/, the possessive pronominal enclitics 𒈬 ''-g̃u<sub>10</sub>'' "my", 𒍪 ''-zu'' "your (sing.)", 𒉌 ''-ni'' "his/her" and 𒁉''-bi'' "its" are contracted and/or assimilated, so that they appear as 𒂷 ''-g̃a<sub>2</sub>'', 𒍝 ''-za'', 𒈾 ''-na'' and 𒁀 ''-ba'', respectively. In contrast, these case markers do not cause the loss of the final /e/ in the plural marker 𒂊𒉈 ''-e-ne'' and in the plural possessive pronominal enclitics 𒈨 ''-me'' "our", 𒍪𒉈𒉈 ''-zu-ne-ne'' "your (pl.)" and (𒀀/𒂊)𒉈𒉈 ''-a/e-ne-ne'' "their". In the case of the genitive, the -/a/ of the case marker is elided instead, so that the genitive sequence ends in -/e(k)/.<ref name="Foxvog39">Foxvog (2016: 39-40)</ref><ref name="jagersma140">Jagersma (2010: 140-142, 173-174)</ref> There is some evidence that the stem-final vowel was also dropped in some ''content'' words under unclear circumstances, but that this was obscured by the spelling.<ref name="jagersma140" /> With respect to the genitive, Jagersma tentatively suggests and Zólyomi (2017: 42-43) concurs that the variation in both content words and enclitics was determined by vowel length: a preceding short vowel generally assimilated to the /a/ and the product was a long /aː/, whereas a preceding long vowel (as in the plural marker, which they believe to have been pronounced -/eneː/) caused dropping of the following /a/.}}
|(𒀀 ''-a'')
|"of"
|-
|[[Equative case|equative]]
|/-gin/
|𒁶 -''gen<sub>7</sub>'' 
|"as", "like"
|-
|[[dative case|dative]]
|/-r(a)/{{efn|The allomorph -/r/ is used after vowels. In early texts, it may not be expressed at all. Alternatively, the alternation may be ignored in the spelling, so that ''-ra'' is written even after vowels.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 161-163)</ref> Additionally, in the Ur III period, ''-a'' may occur instead of ''-ra'' after possessive pronominal enclitics or the genitive marker.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 177-178)</ref>}} (only with animates){{efn|With inanimates, the directive is usually used instead.<ref>Zólyomi 2017: 40</ref>}}
|𒊏 ''-ra'' 
|"to", "for", "upon", [[Causative|causee]]
|-
|[[terminative case|terminative]]{{Efn|The meaning is not necessarily "up to" or "until" as with a terminative case, but rather expresses a general direction, so this case could have been called [[directive case|directive]].}}
|/-(e)š(e)/{{efn|The allomorph -/š/ is used after vowels. In early texts, it may not be expressed graphically at all. Alternatively, the alternation may be ignored in the spelling, so that ''-še<sub>3</sub>'' is written even after vowels.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 180-182)</ref>}}
|𒂠 ''-še<sub>3</sub>'' 
|"to", "towards", "for", "until", "in exchange (for)", "instead if", "as for", "because of"
|-
|[[comitative case|comitative]]
|/-d(a)/{{efn|Although the marker is never written with a sign for VC, it seems likely that there was an allomorph -/d/ used after vowels, leading to the dative marker remaining unwritten in this position in early texts.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 196-200)</ref>}} 
|𒁕 ''-da'' 
|"(together) with", "because of (an emotion)"
|-
|[[locative case|locative]]{{Efn|Unlike the Indo-European locative cases, the Sumerian locative can express not only a static location, but also the direction of a movement; the key feature is that the spatial meaning is [[inessive]] ("in") or [[superessive]] ("on").<ref name=zolyomi_inessive/>}}
|/-a/{{efn|Jagersma believes that, like the nominalizing enclitic, this marker originally began in a glottal stop (/ʔa/).<ref>Jagersma (2010: 38-39)</ref> The glottal stop, in his view, later assimilated to the preceding consonant and caused it to be geminated.<ref name="Jagersma 2010: 38">Jagersma (2010: 38)</ref>}} (only with inanimates){{efn|With animates, the corresponding case in some constructions is the dative.<ref name="Jeger2">Jagersma (2010: 439)</ref>}}
|(𒀀 ''-a'')
|"in/into", "on/onto", "about", "by means of", "with (a certain material)"
|-
|[[ablative case|ablative]] (only with inanimates){{efn|With animates, the construction 𒆠...(𒀀)𒋫 /ki X-a(k)-ta/, lit. "from the place of X" is used.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 193)</ref>}}
|/-ta/ 
|𒋫 ''-ta'' 
|"from", "since", "by (means of)", "in addition to"/"with", distributive ("each")
|}

The final vowels of most of the above markers are subject to loss if they are attached to vowel-final words.

In addition, there are the enclitic particles 𒈾𒀭𒈾 ''na-an-na'' meaning "without"<ref>Edzard (2003: 158-159)</ref> and (𒀀)𒅗𒉆 ''(-a)-ka-nam'' -/akanam/ (in earlier Sumerian) or (𒀀)𒆤𒌍 ''(-a)-ke<sub>4</sub>-eš<sub>2</sub>'' -/akeš/ "because of" (in later Sumerian).<ref>Jagersma (2010: 615-617)</ref>

Note that these nominal cases enter interact with the so-called ''dimensional prefixes'' of the verb that the noun modifies, producing additional meanings. While the dative and directive are in [[complementary distribution]] in the noun, they can nevertheless be distinguished when the verbal prefixes are taken into account. Likewise, whereas the meanings [[Inessive case|"in(to)"]] and [[Superessive case|"on(to)"]] are expressed by the same nominal case, they can be disambiguated by the verbal prefixes. This is explained in more detail in the section on ''[[#Dimensional prefixes|Dimensional prefixes]].''

Additional spatial or temporal meanings can be expressed by genitive phrases like "at the head of" = "above", "at the face of" = "in front of", "at the outer side of" = "because of", etc.:

{{interlinear|bar udu ḫad-ak-a|outer.side sheep white-GEN-LOC|"because of a white sheep"
| top = 𒁇𒇻𒌓𒅗 <br />
<small>bar udu ḫad<sub>2</sub>-ka</small>
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

The [[center embedding|embedded]] structure of the noun phrase can be further illustrated with the following phrase:

{{interlinear|sipad udu siki-(a)k-ak-ene|shepherd sheep wool-GEN-GEN-PL.AN|"shepherds of woolly sheep"
| top = 𒉺𒇻𒇻𒋠𒅗𒆤𒉈<br />
<small>sipad udu siki-ka-ke<sub>4</sub>-ne</small>
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

Here, the first genitive morpheme (''-a(k)'') subordinates 𒋠 ''siki'' "wool" to 𒇻 ''udu'' "sheep", and the second subordinates 𒇻𒋠 ''udu siki-(a)k'' "sheep of wool" (or "woolly sheep") to 𒉺𒇻 ''sipad'' "shepherd".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zólyomi |first1=Gábor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQruCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=Copular Clauses and Focus Marking in Sumerian |date=2014 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-040169-1 |editor1-last=Grzegorek |editor1-first=Katarzyna |page=8 |access-date=21 July 2016 |editor2-last=Borowska |editor2-first=Anna |editor3-last=Kirk |editor3-first=Allison}}</ref>

====== Case usage ======
The uses of the ergative and absolutive case are those typical of ergative languages. The subject of an [[intransitive verb]] such as "come" is in the same case as the object of a [[transitive verb]] such as "build", namely the so-called ''absolutive'' case. In contrast, the subject of a transitive verb has a different case, which is termed ''ergative''. This can be illustrated with the following examples:

{{interlinear|lugal-∅ i-m-g̃en|king-ABS FIN-VEN-come|"The king came."
| top = 𒈗𒉌𒅎𒁺<br />
<small>lugal i<sub>3</sub>-im-g̃en</small>
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

{{interlinear|lugal-e e-∅ i-n-du|king-ERG house-ABS FIN-3.AN.A-build|"The king built a house."
| top = 𒈗𒂊𒂍𒅔𒆕<br />
<small>lugal-e e<sub>2</sub> in-du<sub>3</sub></small>
| indent = 4
| glossing = link
}}

In contrast with the verbal morphology, Sumerian nominal morphology consistently follows this ergative principle regardless of tense/aspect, person and mood.

Besides the general meanings of the case forms outlined above, there are many lexically determined and more or less unpredictable uses of specific cases, often [[Government (linguistics)|governed]] by a certain verb in a certain sense:

* The comitative is used to express:<ref name=":36">Jagersma (2010: 452-454)</ref>
** "to run away" (e.g. 𒀄 ''zaḫ<sub>3</sub>'') or to "take away" (e.g. 𒋼𒀀 ''kar'') ''from'' somebody; 
** 𒍪 ''zu'' "to know/learn something ''from'' somebody";
** 𒁲 ''sa<sub>2</sub>'' "to be equal ''to'' somebody" (but the same verb uses the directive in the phrasal verb ''si'' ...''sa<sub>2</sub>'' "be/put something in order", see ''[[#Phrasal verbs|Phrasal verbs]]'');
** the meaning "ago" in the construction 𒈬𒁕...𒋫 ''mu-da X-ta'' "X years ago" ({{lit|since X with the years}})<ref>Jagersma (2010: 202)</ref>
* The directive is used to express:<ref>Jagersma (2010: 435-438)</ref>
** the objects of 𒍏 ''dab<sub>6</sub>'' "surround", 𒊏 ''raḫ<sub>2</sub>'' "hit", 𒋛 ''si'' "fill",{{Efn|The substance someone fills something ''with'' is in the absolutive.}} 𒋳 ''tag'' "touch"
** ''𒈭 daḫ'' "add something ''to'' something" 
** 𒄄 ''gi<sub>4</sub>'' in the sense "bring back something ''to'' something"
** 𒍑 ''us<sub>2</sub>'' "be next ''to'' something, follow something"
** 𒅗 ''dug<sub>4</sub>'' "say something ''about''/''concerning'' something" ({b-i-dug} "say something ''about this''" often seems to have very vague reference, approaching the meaning "say something ''then''")<ref>Attinger (1993: 287), Jagersma (2010: 328)</ref>
* The locative with a directive verbal prefix, expressing "on(to)", is used to express:<ref>Jagersma (2010: 439-443)</ref>
** 𒆕 ''řu<sub>2</sub>'' "hold on ''to'' something"
** 𒄷𒈿 ''sa<sub>4</sub>'' "give (as a name)" ''to'' somebody/something
** ''𒁺 tum<sub>2</sub>'' "be fit ''for'' something"
* 𒉚 sa''<sub>10</sub>'' "to barter" governs, in the sense to "to buy", the terminative to introduce the seller ''from'' whom something is bought, but in another construction it uses the locative for the thing something is bartered ''for;''<ref>Jagersma (2010: 394, 464)</ref>
* 𒋾 ''ti'' "to approach" governs the dative.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 413)</ref>

For the government of phrasal verbs, see [[#Phrasal verbs|the relevant section]].

==== Pronouns ====
The attested [[personal pronoun]]s are:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!independent
!possessive suffix/enclitic
|-
!1st person singular
|''𒂷''(''𒂊'') ''g̃e<sub>26</sub>(-e)''
|''𒈬 -g̃u<sub>10</sub>''
|-
!2nd person singular
|''𒍢 ze<sub>2</sub>'', Old Babylonian ''𒍝𒂊 za-e''
|''𒍪 -zu''
|-
!3rd person singular animate
|''𒀀𒉈 a-ne'' or ''𒂊''𒉈 ''e-ne''{{Efn|The variant with /e/ is found in Old Babylonian and has a few attestations in Ur III Neo-Sumerian.}}
|(𒀀)''𒉌 -(a)-ni''{{Efn|The initial /a/ is present after consonants (albeit not always written, especially in earlier periods), but contracts with a preceding vowel.<ref name="Jagersma 2010: 214-215, 218">Jagersma (2010: 214-215, 218)</ref>}}
|-
!3rd person inanimate{{Efn|The inanimate has no number distinction, so 𒁉 ''-bi'' can mean both "its" and "their".}}
|
|''𒁉 -bi''
|-
!1st person plural
|(𒈨𒂗𒉈𒂗 ''me-en-de<sub>3</sub>-en''?, ''𒈨 me''?){{Efn|The forms /menden/ or /me/ for "we" and /menzen/ for "you (pl.)" are only attested in Sumero-Akkadian lexical lists and, in the case of /mende(n)/, in an Old Babylonian literary text. Two of them seem to consist of the enclitic copula conjugated in the corresponding person and number ("(who) we are", "(who) you (pl.) are"). Another form given in lexical lists is 𒍝𒂊𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 ''za-e-me-en-ze<sub>2</sub>-en'', clearly a combination of the personal plural ''you'' (sing.) and the 2nd person plural form of the copula. For these reasons, their authenticity is considered dubious.<ref name="Edzard">Edzard (2003: 55-56)</ref><ref name="Thomsen">Thomsen (2001: 67)</ref>}}
|''𒈨 -me''
|-
!2nd person plural
|(𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 ''me-en-ze<sub>2</sub>-en''?){{Efn|The forms /menden/ or /me/ for "we" and /menzen/ for "you (pl.)" are only attested in Sumero-Akkadian lexical lists and, in the case of /mende(n)/, in an Old Babylonian literary text. Two of them seem to consist of the enclitic copula conjugated in the corresponding person and number ("(who) we are", "(who) you (pl.) are"). Another form given in lexical lists is 𒍝𒂊𒈨𒂗𒍢𒂗 ''za-e-me-ze<sub>2</sub>-en'', clearly a combination of the personal plural "you" (sing.) and the 2nd person plural form of the copula. For these reasons, their authenticity is considered dubious.<ref name="Edzard" /><ref name="Thomsen" />}}
|''𒍪𒉈𒉈 -zu-ne-ne''
|-
!3rd person plural animate
|''𒀀/𒂊𒉈𒉈 a/e-ne-ne{{Efn|The variant with /e/ is found in Old Babylonian and has a few attestations in Ur III Neo-Sumerian.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 210-211)</ref><ref>Thomsen 2001: 68</ref><ref>Foxvog (2016: 30)</ref><ref>Edzard (2003: 55)</ref>}}''
|''𒀀/𒂊𒉈𒉈 (-a)-ne-ne,{{Efn|The initial /a/ is present after consonants (albeit not always written, especially in earlier periods), but contracts with a preceding vowel.<ref name="Jagersma 2010: 214-215, 218"/>}} 𒁉 -bi''<ref>Thomsen (2001: 73), Zólyomi (2017: 39)</ref>
|}
The stem vowels of ''𒂷''(''𒂊'') ''g̃e<sub>26</sub>(-e)'' and ''𒂊 ze<sub>2</sub>'' are assimilated to a following case suffix containing /a/ and then have the forms ''𒂷 g̃a-'' and 𒍝 ''za-;'' e.g. 𒍝𒊏 ''za-ra'' 'to you (sg.)'.

As far as [[demonstrative pronouns]] are concerned, Sumerian most commonly uses the enclitic ''𒁉 -bi'' to express the meaning "this". There are rare instances of other demonstrative enclitics such as 𒂊 ''-e'' "this", 𒊺 ''-še'' "that" and 𒊑 ''-re'' "that". The difference between the three has been explained in terms of increasing distance from the speaker<ref>Jagersma (2009: 220-225)</ref> or as a difference between proximity to the speaker, proximity to the listener and distance from both, akin to the [[Japanese pronouns#Demonstrative and interrogative pronouns|Japanese]] or [[Latin declension#Other demonstrative pronouns|Latin]] three-term demonstrative system.<ref name=wilcke2013>Wilcke, Claus 2013. ’Dieser Ur-Namma hier… Eine auf die Darstellung weisende Statueninschrift.’ ''Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale'' 107: 173–186. [https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-assyriologie-2013-1-page-173.htm Online].</ref> The independent demonstrative pronouns are 𒉈𒂗/𒉈𒂊 ''ne-e''(''n'') "this (thing)" and 𒄯 ''ur<sub>5</sub>'' "that (thing)";<ref>Jagersma (2010: 225-228), Edzard (2003: 57)</ref> ''-ne(n)'' might also be used as another enclitic.<ref>Edzard (2003: 49)</ref>{{Efn|It has been ascribed a more contrastive nuance "this (as opposed to others)".<ref name=wilcke2013/>}} "Now" is 𒉌𒉈𒂠 ''i<sub>3</sub>-ne-eš<sub>2</sub>'' or 𒀀𒁕𒀠 ''a-da-al''. For "then" and "there", the declined noun phrases 𒌓𒁀 ''ud-ba'' "at that time" and 𒆠𒁀 ''ki-ba'' "at that place" are used; "so" is 𒄯𒁶 ''ur<sub>5</sub>''-''gen<sub>7</sub>'', lit. "like that".<ref>Jagersma (2003: 228)</ref>

The [[interrogative pronouns]] are 𒀀𒁀 ''a-ba'' "who" and 𒀀𒈾 ''a-na'' "what" (also used as "whoever" and "whatever" when introducing dependent clauses). The stem for "where" is 𒈨 ''me-''<ref name=jagersma_wh/> (used in the locative, terminative and ablative to express "where", "whither" and "whence", respectively<ref>Foxvog (2016: 35)</ref><ref name="Thomsen119">Thomsen (2001: 119)</ref><ref>Edzard (2003: 27)</ref>) . "When" is 𒇷/𒂗 ''en<sub>3</sub>''/''en'',<ref name=jagersma_wh/> but also the stem  𒈨(𒂊)𒈾 ''me-(e)-na'' is attested for "when" (in the emphatic form ''me-na-am<sub>3</sub>'' and in the terminative ''me-na-še<sub>3</sub>'' "until when?", "how long?").<ref>Thomsen (2001: 77)</ref> "How" and "why" are expressed by 𒀀𒈾𒀸 ''a-na-aš'' ({{lit|what for?}}) and 𒀀𒁶 ''a''-''gen<sub>7</sub>'' "how" (an equative case form, perhaps "like what?").<ref name=jagersma_wh>Jagersma (2003: 228-229)</ref> The expected form 𒀀𒈾𒁶 ''a-na-gen<sub>7</sub>'' is used in Old Babylonian.<ref name="Thomsen119" />

An [[indefinite pronoun]] is 𒈾𒈨 ''na-me'' "any", which is only attested in [[Grammatical modifier|attributive]] function until the Old Babylonian period,<ref>Jagersma (2010: 59)</ref> but may also stand alone in the sense "anyone, anything" in late texts.<ref>Edzard (2003: 59), Thomsen (2001: 78)</ref> It can be added to nouns to produce further expressions with pronominal meaning such as 𒇽𒈾𒈨 ''lu<sub>2</sub> na-me'' "anyone", 𒃻𒈾𒈨 ''nig̃<sub>2</sub> na-me'' "anything", 𒆠𒈾𒈨 ''ki na-me'' "anywhere", 𒌓𒈾𒈨 ''ud<sub>4</sub> na-me'' "ever, any time". The nouns 𒇽 ''lu<sub>2</sub>'' "man" and 𒃻 ''nig̃<sub>2</sub>'' "thing" are also used for "someone, anyone" and "something, anything".<ref>Jagersma (2010: 231-234)</ref> With negation, all of these expressions naturally acquire the meanings "nobody", "nothing", "nowhere" and "never".<ref>Foxvog (2016: 36)</ref>

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is 𒅎(𒋼) ''ni<sub>2</sub>''(''-te'') "self", which generally occurs with possessive pronouns attached: 𒅎''𒈬 ni<sub>2</sub>-g̃u<sub>10</sub>'' "my-self", etc. The longer form appears in the third person animate (𒅎𒋼𒉌 ''ni<sub>2</sub>-te-ni'' "him/herself", 𒅎𒋼𒉈𒉈 ''ni<sub>2</sub>-te-ne-ne'' "themselves")''.''<ref>Jagersma (2010: 234-239)</ref>

==== Adjectives ====
It is controversial whether Sumerian has adjectives at all, since nearly all stems with adjectival meaning are also attested as verb stems and may be conjugated as verbs: 𒈤 ''maḫ'' "great" > 𒎏𒀠𒈤 ''nin al-maḫ'' "the lady is great".<ref>Zólyomi (2017: 92)</ref><ref>Jagersma (2010: 268-269)</ref> Jagersma believes that there is a distinction in that the few true adjectives cannot be negated, and a few stems are different depending on the part of speech: 𒃲 ''gal'' "big", but 𒄖𒌌 ''gu-ul'' "be big".<ref>Jagersma (2010: 278)</ref> Furthermore, stems with adjective-like meaning sometimes occur with the nominalizing suffix /-a/, but their behaviour varies  in this respect. Some stems appear to require the suffix always: e.g. 𒆗𒂵 ''kalag-ga'' "mighty", 𒊷𒂵 ''sag<sub>9</sub>-ga'' "beautiful", 𒁍𒁕 ''gid<sub>2</sub>-da'' "long"<ref>Thomsen (2001: 64)</ref><ref>Jagersma (2010: 267)</ref> (these are verbs with adjectival meaning according to Jagersma<ref>Jagersma (2010: 269)</ref>). Some never take the suffix: e.g. 𒃲 ''gal'' "big", 𒌉 ''tur'' "small" and 𒈤 ''maḫ'' "great"<ref>Attinger (1993: 148)</ref> (these are genuine adjectives according to Jagersma<ref>(2010: 269)</ref>). Finally, some alternate: 𒍣 ''zid'' "right" often occurs as 𒍣𒁕 ''zid-da'' (these are pairs of adjectives and verbs derived from them, respectively, according to Jagersma<ref>Jagersma (2010: 279)</ref>). In the latter case, attempts have been made to find a difference of meaning between the forms with and without ''-a''; it has been suggested that the form with ''-a'' expresses a kind of determination,<ref>See Thomsen (2001: 64), Edzard (2003: 47) and references therein.</ref> e.g. ''zid'' "righteous, true" vs ''zid-da'' "right (not left)", or [[restrictiveness]], e.g. 𒂍𒉋 ''e<sub>2</sub> gibil'' "a new house" vs 𒂍𒉋𒆷 ''e<sub>2</sub> gibil-la'' "the new house (as contrasted with the old one)", "a/the newer (kind of) house" or "the newest house", as well as nominalization, e.g. ''tur-ra'' "a/the small one" or "a small thing".<ref>Jagersma (2010: 279-281)</ref> Other scholars have remained sceptical about the posited contrasts.<ref>Foxvog (2016: 24), Hayes (2000: 98), partly Thomsen (2001: 64).</ref>

A few adjectives, like 𒃲 ''gal'' "big" and 𒌉 ''tur'' "small" appear to "agree in number" with a preceding noun in the plural by reduplication; with some other adjectives, the meaning seems to be "each of them ADJ". The colour term 𒌓(𒌓) ''bar<sub>6</sub>''-''bar<sub>6</sub>'' / ''babbar'' "white" appears to have always been reduplicated, and the same may be true of 𒈪 ''gig<sub>2</sub>'' (actually ''giggig'') "black".<ref name=":28">Jagersma (2010: 270-272)</ref>

To express the comparative or superlative degree, various constructions with the word 𒋛𒀀 ''dirig'' "exceed"/"excess" are used: X + locative + ''dirig-ga'' "which exceeds (all) X", ''dirig'' + X + genitive + terminative "exceeding X", lit. "to the excess of X".<ref>Jagersma (2010: 284)</ref>

==== Adverbs and adverbial expressions ====
Most commonly, adverbial meanings are expressed by noun phrases in a certain case, e.g. 𒌓 ''ud-ba'' "then", lit. "at that time".<ref>Jagersma (2010: 83)</ref>

There are two main ways to form an adverb of manner:

* There is a dedicated adverbiative suffix 𒂠 ''-eš<sub>2</sub>'',<ref>Sallaberger (2023: 49), Zólyomi (2017: 68-69), Attinger (1993: 168), Jagersma considers this, too, to be a special noun case.</ref> which can be used to derive adverbs from both adjectives and nouns: 𒍣𒉈𒂠 ''zid-de<sub>3</sub>-eš<sub>2</sub>'' "rightly", "in the right way",<ref>Jagersma (2010: 282-283)</ref> 𒆰𒂠 ''numun-eš<sub>2</sub>'' 'as seeds', 'in the manner of seeds'.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 137)</ref>
* the enclitic 𒁉 ''-bi'' can be added to an adjectival stem: 𒉋𒁉 ''gibil-bi'' "newly". This, too, is interpreted by Jagersma as a deadjectival noun with a possessive clitic in the directive case: {gibil.∅'''.'''bi-e}, lit. "at its newness".{{Efn|Jagersma considers the correct reading of the sign 𒁉 ''bi'' in the possessive/demonstrative enclitic to be ''be<sub>2</sub>''.}}<ref>Jagersma (2010: 85)</ref>

For pronominal adverbs, see the section on [[#Pronouns|Pronouns]].

====Numerals====
Sumerian has a combination [[decimal]] and [[sexagesimal]] system (for example, 600 is 'ten sixties'), so that the Sumerian lexical numeral system is sexagesimal with 10 as a subbase.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ux--OWgWvBQC&q=sumerian+lexical+numeral&pg=PA247|title=Numerical Notation: A Comparative History|author=Stephen Chrisomalis|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87818-0|page=236|access-date=2021-02-25}}</ref> The [[cardinal numeral]]s and ways of forming composite numbers are as follows:<ref name=jagersma_numerals>Jagersma (2010: 242-246)</ref><ref>Sallaberger (2023: 48-49, 201-204)</ref><ref>Foxvog (2016: 51)</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!number
!name
!explanation notes
!cuneiform sign
|-
|1
|''diš''/''deš'' (''aš'', ''dili''{{efn|These variants are generally not used as counting words, but rather as adjectives meaning "single", "alone" and the like, but there are some indications that they might have functioned as numerals in very early periods or occasionally.<ref name=jagersma_numerals/>}})
|
|𒁹 (𒀸)
|-
|2
|''min''
|
|𒈫
|-
|3
|''eš<sub>5</sub>''
|
|𒐈, 𒌍
|-
|4
|''limmu''
|
|𒇹, 𒐉, 𒐼
|-
|5
|''ia<sub>2</sub>''/''i<sub>2</sub>''
|
|𒐊
|-
|6
|''aš''{{efn|With a long vowel due to the origin from a contraction according to Jagersma.}}
|''ia<sub>2</sub>'' "five" + ''aš'' "one"
|𒐋
|-
|7
|''imin''/''umun<sub>5</sub>''/''umin''
|''ia<sub>2</sub>'' "five" + ''min'' "two"
|𒅓
|-
|8
|''ussu''
|
|𒑄
|-
|9
|''ilimmu''
|''ia<sub>2</sub>''/''i<sub>2</sub>'' (5) + ''limmu'' (4)
|𒑆
|-
|10
|''u''
|
|𒌋
|-
|11
|''u-diš'' (?)
|
|𒌋𒁹
|-
|20
|''niš''
|
|𒌋𒌋
|-
|30
|''ušu<sub>3</sub>''
|
|𒌋𒌋𒌋
|-
|40
|''nimin'' 
|"less two [tens]"
|𒐏
|-
|50
|''ninnu''
|"less ten"
|𒐐
|-
|60
|''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')<ref>Jagersma (2010: 244)</ref>
|
|𒐕, 𒐑
|-
|120
|''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')''-min''
|"two ''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>(d)''"
|𒐕𒈫
|-
|240
|''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')''-limmu''
|"four ''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')"
|𒐕𒐏
|-
|420
|''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')''-imin''
|"seven ''g̃eš''(''d'')"
|𒐕𒅓
|-
|600
|''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')-''u''
|"ten ''g̃eš(d)''"
|𒐞
|-
|1000
|''li-mu-um''
|borrowed from Akkadian
|𒇷𒈬𒌝
|-
|1200
|''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')''-u-min''
|"two ''g̃eš<sub>2</sub>''(''d'')''-u''"
|𒐞𒈫
|-
|3600
|''šar<sub>2</sub>''
|"totality"
|𒊹 or 𒄭<ref name="Stephen Chrisomalis 2010 243">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ux--OWgWvBQC&q=sumerian+lexical+numeral&pg=PA247|title=Numerical Notation: A Comparative History|author=Stephen Chrisomalis|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87818-0|page=243|access-date=2024-12-12}}</ref>
|-
|36000
|''šar<sub>2</sub>-u''
|"ten totalities"
|𒐬
|-
|216000
|''šar<sub>2</sub> gal''
|"a big totality"
|𒊹𒃲 or 𒄭𒃲<ref name="Stephen Chrisomalis 2010 243"/>
|}
[[Ordinal numeral]]s are formed with the suffix 𒄰𒈠 ''-kam-ma'' in Old Sumerian and 𒄰(𒈠) ''-kam(-ma)'' (with the final vowel still surfacing in front of enclitics) in subsequent periods.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 256)</ref> However, a cardinal numeral may also have ordinal meaning sometimes.<ref name=":11">Jagersma (2010: 246-250)</ref>

The syntax of numerals has some peculiarities. Besides just being placed after a noun like other modifiers (𒌉𒐈 ''dumu eš<sub>5</sub>'' "three children" - which may, however, also be written 𒐈𒌉 ''3 dumu''), the numeral may be reinforced by the [[#Copula verb|copula]] (𒌉𒐈𒀀𒀭 ''dumu eš<sub>5</sub>''-''am<sub>3</sub>'', lit. "the children, being three". Finally, there is a third construction in which the possessive pronoun 𒁉 -''bi'' is added after the numeral, which gives the whole phrase a definite meaning: 𒌉𒐈𒀀𒁉 ''dumu eš<sub>5</sub>''-''a-bi'': "''the'' three children" ({{lit|children - the three of them}}). The numerals 𒈫 ''min'' "two" and 𒐈 ''eš<sub>5</sub>'' "three" are also supplied with the nominalizing marker ''-a'' before the pronoun, as the above example shows.<ref name=":11" />

[[Fraction]]s are formed with the phrase 𒅆...N...𒅅 ''igi-''N-''g̃al<sub>2</sub>'' : "one-Nth"; where 𒅅 ''g̃al<sub>2</sub>'' may be omitted. "One-half", however, is 𒋗𒊒𒀀 ''šu-ru-a'', later 𒋗𒊑𒀀 ''šu-ri-a.'' Another way of expressing fractions was originally limited to weight measures, specifically fractions of the [[Mina (unit)|mina]] (𒈠𒈾 ''ma-na''): 𒑚 ''šuššana'' "one-third" (literarlly "two-sixths"), 𒑛 ''šanabi'' "two-thirds" (the former two words are of Akkadian origins), 𒑜 ''gig̃usila'' or 𒇲𒌋𒂆 ''la<sub>2</sub> gig̃<sub>4</sub> u'' "five-sixths" (literally "ten [[shekel]]s split off (from the mina)" or "(a mina) minus ten shekels", respectively), 𒂆 ''gig̃<sub>4</sub>'' "one-sixtieth", lit. "a shekel" (since a shekel is one-sixtieth of a mina). Smaller fractions are formed by combining these: e.g. one-fifth is ''𒌋𒁹𒁹𒂆'' "12×1/60 = 1/5", and two-fifths are 𒑚𒇹𒂆 "1/3 + (4 × 1/60) = 5/15 + 1/15 = 6/15 = 2/5".<ref>Jagersma (2010: 260-267)</ref>