Editing Sophist (section)

==Influence==
Few writings from and about the first sophists survive. The early sophists charged money in exchange for education and providing wisdom, and so were typically employed by wealthy people. This practice resulted in the condemnations made by [[Plato]] through [[Socrates]] in his dialogues, as well as by [[Xenophon]] in his ''[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]'' and, somewhat controversially, by [[Aristotle]]. As a paid tutor to [[Alexander the Great]], Aristotle could be accused of being a sophist. Aristotle did not actually accept payment from [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]], Alexander's father, but requested that Philip reconstruct Aristotle's home town of [[Stageira]] as payment, which Philip had destroyed in a previous campaign, terms which Philip accepted.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} [[James A. Herrick]] wrote: "In ''[[De Oratore]]'', [[Cicero]] blames Plato for separating wisdom and eloquence in the philosopher's famous attack on the sophists in ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]''."<ref>{{cite book|last=Herrick|first=James|author-link=James A. Herrick|title=The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction|year=2005|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-41492-5|page=103}}</ref> Through works such as these, sophists were portrayed as "[[wikt:specious|specious]]" or "deceptive", hence the [[wikt:sophist|modern meaning]] of the term.

===Democracy===
The sophists' rhetorical techniques were useful for any young nobleman seeking public office. The societal roles the sophists filled had important ramifications for the Athenian political system. The historical context provides evidence for their considerable influence, as Athens became more and more democratic during the period in which the sophists were most active.<ref>Blackwell, Christopher. [http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/home?greekEncoding=UnicodeC "Demos: Classical Athenian Democracy"]. 28 February 2003. The Stoa: a Consortium for Scholarly Publication in the Humanities. 25 April 2007.</ref>

Even though Athens was already a flourishing democracy before their arrival, the cultural and psychological contributions of the sophists played an important role in the growth of Athenian democracy. Sophists contributed to the new democracy in part by espousing expertise in public deliberation, the foundation of decision-making, which allowed—and perhaps required—a tolerance of the beliefs of others. This liberal attitude would naturally have made its way into the Athenian assembly as sophists began acquiring increasingly high-powered clients.<ref>Sprague, Rosamond Kent, ''The Older Sophists'', Hacker Publishing Company ({{ISBN|0-87220-556-8}}), p. 32</ref> Continuous rhetorical training gave the citizens of Athens "the ability to create accounts of communal possibilities through persuasive speech".<ref>[[Susan Jarratt|Jarratt, Susan C.]] ''Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured''. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991, p. 98</ref> This was important for the democracy, as it gave disparate and sometimes superficially unattractive views a chance to be heard in the Athenian assembly.

In addition, sophists had a great impact on the early development of [[law]], as the sophists were the first lawyers in the world. Their status as lawyers was a result of their highly developed skills in argument.<ref>Martin, Richard. "Seven Sages as Performers of Wisdom". ''[[Cultural Poetics in Archaic Greece]]''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 108–130.</ref>

===Education===
{{Rhetoric}}

====Athens====
The sophists were the first formal teachers of the art of speaking and writing in the Western world. Their influence on education in general, and medical education in particular, has been described by Seamus Mac Suibhne.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mac Suibhne | first1 = Seamus | date = Jan 2010 | title = Sophists, sophistry, and modern medical education | journal = Medical Teacher | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 71–75 | pmid = 20095778 | doi=10.3109/01421590903386799| s2cid = 36624580 }}</ref> The sophists "offer quite a different epistemic field from that mapped by Aristotle", according to scholar [[Susan Jarratt]], writer of ''[[Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured]].''

For the sophists, the science of eloquence became a method to earn money. In order to teach their students the art of persuasion and demonstrate their thoughts, they focused on two techniques: [[dialectic]]s and [[rhetoric]]. The sophists taught their students two main techniques: the usage of sophisms and contradictions. These means distinguished the speeches of the sophists from the other speakers. Contradictions (antithesis <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Hegel's Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis Model |pages=978 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_200183 |last1=Schnitker |first1=Sarah A. |last2=Emmons |first2=Robert A. |isbn=978-1-4020-8264-1 }}</ref>) were important to the Sophists because they believed that a good rhetorician should be able to defend both his own opinion and the exact opposite one. In this way, was developed the ability to find clear, convincing arguments for any thesis. For the sophists, the primary purpose was to win the dispute in order to prove their excellence in word usage. They were convinced that there was no verity, but there were different opinions, equal in importance, and the "verity" was the only one that would be more convincingly demonstrated by the rhetorician.

Sophists were not limited in their speeches only to topics in which they were aware. For them, there were no topics they could not dispute, because their skill reached such a level that they were able to talk about completely unknown things to them and still impress upon listeners and the opponent. The main purpose was to pick an approach to the audience, to please it and to adapt the speech to it. Unlike [[Plato]]'s approach, the Sophist rhetoricians did not focus on identifying the truth, but the most important thing for them was to prove their case.

The first sophist whose speeches are a perfect example of a sophisticated approach is Gorgias. One of his most famous speeches is the "Praise of Helen", which has made a significant contribution to rhetorical art. In this speech, Gorgias aims to make something almost impossible – to justify Helen, about whom the people have already had a negative opinion. By methods of double oppositions, stringing of repetitive positive qualities and insightful consistent arguments, Gorgias gradually purifies the poor reputation of a woman. Later, [[Aristotle]] described the means used in Gorgias' speech as "Gorgias figures". All of these figures create the most accessible path for the audience to the argument offered, varying depending on the type of speech and audience.

====Rome====
The classical tradition of [[rhetoric]] and composition refers more to philosophers such as Aristotle, Cicero, and [[Quintilian]] than to the sophists. Owing largely to the influence of Plato and Aristotle, [[philosophy]] came to be regarded as distinct from sophistry, the latter being regarded as specious and rhetorical, a practical discipline. Thus, by the time of the [[Roman Empire]], a sophist was simply a teacher of rhetoric and a popular public speaker. For instance, [[Libanius]], [[Himerius]], [[Aelius Aristides]], and [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto|Fronto]] were sophists in this sense.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} However, despite the opposition from philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, it is clear that sophists had a vast influence on a number of spheres, including the growth of knowledge and on ethical-political theory. Their teachings had a huge influence on thought in the 5th century BCE.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} The sophists focused on the rational examination of human affairs and the betterment and success of human life. They argued that gods could not be the explanation of human action.

Many rhetoricians during this period were instructed under specialists in Greek rhetorical studies as part of their standard education. [[Cicero]], a prominent rhetorician during this period in Roman history, is one such example of the influence of the Second Sophistic on Roman education. His early life coincided with the suppression of Latin rhetoric in Roman education under the edicts of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]] and Domitius. Cicero was instructed in Greek rhetoric throughout his youth, as well as in other subjects of the Roman rubric under Archias. Cicero benefited in his early education from favorable ties to Crassus.<ref name=":0" />

In his writings, Cicero is said to have shown a "synthesis that he achieved between Greek and Roman culture" summed up in his work ''[[De Oratore]]. ''Despite his oratorical skill, Cicero pressed for a more liberal education in Roman instruction which focused more in the broad sciences including Roman history. He entitled this set of sciences as ''politior humanitas'' (2.72). Regardless of his efforts toward this end, Greek history was still preferred by the majority of aristocratic Romans during this time.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 642792|title = Roman Education in the Late Republic and Early Empire|last = Eyre|first = J.J.|date = March 1963|journal = Greece & Rome, Second Edition|doi = 10.1017/s0017383500012869|pages = 47–59|publisher = Cambridge University Press|volume = 10|issue = 1| s2cid=162790971 }}</ref>

From the late 1st century CE the [[Second Sophistic]], a philosophical and rhetorical movement, was the chief expression of intellectual life. The term "Second Sophistic" comes from [[Philostratus]], who, rejecting the term "New Sophistic", traced the beginnings of the movement to the orator Aeschines in the 4th century BCE. But its earliest representative was really [[Nicetes of Smyrna]], in the late 1st century CE. Unlike the original Sophistic movement of the 5th century BCE, the Second Sophistic was little concerned with [[politics]]. But it was, to a large degree, to meet the everyday needs and respond to the practical problems of [[Greco-Roman]] society. It came to dominate higher education and left its mark on many forms of literature.{{Citation needed|date=April 2016}} [[Lucian]], himself a writer of the Second Sophistic, even calls [[Jesus]] "that crucified sophist".<ref>Lucian, ''Peregrinus'' 13 (τὸν δὲ ἀνεσκολοπισμένον ἐκεῖνον σοφιστὴν αὐτὸν), cited by Guthrie p. 34.</ref>

During the [[Second Sophistic]], the Greek discipline of rhetoric heavily influenced Roman education. During this time Latin rhetorical studies were banned for the precedent of Greek rhetorical studies. In addition, Greek history was preferred for educating the Roman elites above that of their native Roman history.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|jstor = 642252|title = Cicero at School|last = Clarke|first = M. L.|date = April 1968|journal = Greece & Rome |series=Second Series|doi = 10.1017/s001738350001679x|pages = 18–22|publisher = Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association|volume = 15|issue = 1| s2cid=162158134 }}</ref>