Editing Seleucus I Nicator (section)

==King of the Seleucid empire (306–281 BC)==
The struggle among the Diadochi reached its climax when Antigonus, after the extinction of the old royal line of Macedonia, proclaimed himself king<ref name=EB1911/> in 306 BC. Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander and Seleucus, the other four principal Macedonian chiefs, soon followed and assumed the title and style of [[basileus]] (king).<ref name=EB1911/>

===Chandragupta and the Eastern Provinces===
[[File:Lorber 130.jpg|thumb|275x275px|Tetradrachm of Seleucus I from the [[Seleucia]] mint. Obverse shows the head of [[Zeus]]. Reverse shows [[Athena]] with elephants, with Greek legend: BAΣIΛEΩΣ ΣEΛEYKOY, ''Basileōs Seleukou,'' "of king Seleucus".]]
[[File:Seleukos I Nikator, tetradrachm, 312-281 BC, HGC 9-20.jpg|thumb|275x275px|Coin of Seleucus I from the [[Susa]] mint. Obverse shows Seleucus wearing helmet covered with leopard skin and bull's horn and ear. Reverse shows [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], holding in both hands a wreath that she places on trophy. Greek legend reads: BAΣIΛEΩΣ ΣEΛEYKOY, ''Basileōs Seleukou,'' "of king Seleucus".]]
{{Main|Seleucid–Mauryan war}}
Seleucus soon turned his attention once again eastward. The Persian provinces in what is now modern Afghanistan, together with the wealthy kingdom of [[Gandhara]] and the states of the [[Indus Valley]], had all submitted to [[Alexander the Great]] and become part of his empire. When Alexander died, the [[Wars of the Diadochi]] ("Successors") split his empire apart; as his generals fought for control of Alexander's empire. In the eastern territories, Seleucus I Nicator took control of Alexander's conquests. According to the Roman historian [[Appian]]:

{{quote|text=[Seleucus was] always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.|sign=<small>[[Appian]]</small>|source=''History of Rome'', The Syrian Wars [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_syriaca_11.html 55]}}The Mauryans then annexed the areas around the Indus governed by the four Greek satraps: [[Nicanor (Antipatrid general)|Nicanor]], [[Philip (satrap)|Phillip]], [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]] and [[Peithon (son of Agenor)|Peithon]]. This established Mauryan control to the banks of the Indus. Chandragupta's victories convinced Seleucus that he needed to secure his eastern flank. Seeking to hold the Macedonian territories there, Seleucus thus came into conflict with the emerging and expanding Mauryan Empire over the Indus Valley.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=34}}

In the year 306 BC, Seleucus I Nicator went to India and apparently occupied territory as far as the Indus, and eventually [[Seleucid–Mauryan war|waged war]] with the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] Emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya]]. Only a few sources mention his activities in India. Chandragupta (known in Greek sources as ''Sandrokottos''), founder of the [[Mauryan empire]], had conquered the Indus valley and several other parts of the easternmost regions of Alexander's empire. Seleucus began a campaign against Chandragupta and crossed the [[Indus]].{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=34}} Most western historians note that it appears to have fared poorly as he did not achieve his goals{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}, even though what exactly happened is unknown.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|pp=32–33}} The two leaders ultimately reached an agreement,{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=33}} and through a treaty sealed in 303 BC,<ref name="Keay" >{{cite book | author= John Keay | title=India: A History | year=2001  | pages =85–86 | isbn = 978-0-8021-3797-5| publisher=Grove Press }}</ref> Seleucus abandoned the territories he could never securely hold in exchange for stabilizing the East and obtaining elephants, with which he could turn his attention against his great western rival, Antigonus Monophthalmus.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=33}} The 500 war elephants Seleucus obtained from Chandragupta were to play a key role in the forthcoming battles, particularly at Ipsus{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=37}} against Antigonus and Demetrius. The Maurya king might have married the daughter of Seleucus.{{sfn|Majumdar|2003|p=105}} According to Strabo, the ceded territories bordered the Indus:

<blockquote>
The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but [[Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Sandrocottus]] [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. — Strabo 15.2.9<ref>[[Strabo]], ''Geography'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/15B*.html#2.9 xv.2.9]</ref>
</blockquote>

From this, it seems that Seleucus surrendered the easternmost parts of the provinces of [[Arachosia]], [[Gedrosia]], [[Paropamisadae]] and perhaps also [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]]. On the other hand, he was accepted by other satraps of the eastern provinces. His Persian wife, Apama, may have helped him implement his rule in [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdiana]].<ref>[[Vincent Arthur Smith|Vincent A. Smith]] (1998). ''Ashoka''. Asian Educational Services. {{ISBN|81-206-1303-1}}.</ref><ref>[[Walter Eugene Clark]] (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology", ''Classical Philology'' '''14''' (4), pp. 297–313.</ref> This would tend to be corroborated archaeologically, as concrete indications of Mauryan influence, such as the inscriptions of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] which are known to be located in, for example, [[Kandhahar]] in today's southern Afghanistan.

[[File:Head of a Greco-Bactrian ruler, Temple of the Oxus, Takht-i-Sangin, 3rd-2nd century BCE.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Seleucus I or possibly a [[Greco-Bactrian]] ruler, with royal diadem. Temple of the Oxus, [[Takht-i Sangin]], 3rd-2nd century BC, [[Tajikistan]].<ref name="OB27">{{cite journal |last1=Bopearachchi |first1=Osmund |title=A Faience Head of a Graeco-Bactrian King from Ai Khanum |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |date=1998 |volume=12 |page=27 |jstor=24049090 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049090 |issn=0890-4464}}</ref>]]Some authors say that the argument relating to Seleucus handing over more of what is now southern Afghanistan is an exaggeration originating in a statement by Pliny the Elder referring not specifically to the lands received by Chandragupta, but rather to the various opinions of geographers regarding the definition of the word "India":<ref>Debated by Tarn, ''The Greeks in Bactria and India'', p. 100</ref>

<blockquote>
Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the [[Gedrosia|Gedrose]], the [[Arachosia|Arachotë]], the [[Herat|Aria]], and the [[Paropamisadë]], the [[Kabul River|River Cophes]] thus forming the extreme boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these territories, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria.  — Pliny, Natural History VI, 23<ref>[https://archive.today/20121210070738/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.23 Pliny, ''Natural History'' VI, 23]</ref>
</blockquote>

The span of control of the Mauryas is also questioned by present-day archaeologists, and the idea that the ceded territory included all of Aria and Gedrosia (Balochistan) seems unlikely.<ref>Coningham & Young (2015), p. 452-453</ref>{{efn|name="Herat"|Kosmin: Kosmin (2014), ''The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire'', p.33: "Seleucus transferred to Chandragupta's kingdom the easternmost satrapies of his empire, certainly Gandhara, Parapamisadae, and the eastern parts of Gedrosia, and possibly also Arachosia and Aria as far as Herat." The acquisition of Aria (modern Herat) is disputed. According to Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee (1996), p.594, it "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars [...] on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo [...] and a statement by Pliny." According to John D Grainger (2014, p. 109), "Seleucus "must [...] have held Aria", and furthermore, his "son Antiochos was active there fifteen years later".}}

The alliance between Chandragupta and Seleucus was affirmed with a marriage ([[Epigamia]]). Chandragupta or his son may have married a daughter of Seleucus, or perhaps there was diplomatic recognition of intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. An Indian [[Puranic]] source, the ''[[Pratisargaparvan|Pratisarga Parva]]'' of the ''[[Bhavishya Purana]]'', described the marriage of [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] with a Greek ("[[Yavana]]") princess, daughter of Seleucus (''Suluva''<ref>''Hindu Nationalism, A Reader'', Christopher Jeffrelot, [[Princeton University Press]], 2007 [https://archive.org/details/HinduNationalism-AReader p.90]</ref> in Indian sources).<ref name="Sagar">Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA83 p. 83]. The paragraph of the Pratisarga Parva mentioning this marriage is: "Chandragupta married with a daughter of Suluva, the [[Yavana]] king of [[Persian Empire|Pausasa]]. Thus, he mixed the Buddhists and the Yavanas. He ruled for 60 years. From him, [[Bindusara|Vindusara]] was born and ruled for the same number of years as his father. His son was Ashoka."[http://mandhataglobal.com/wp-content/custom/articles/Puranas.pdf Pratisarga Parva p.18]. Original Sanskrit of the first two verses: "Chandragupta Sutah Paursadhipateh Sutam. Suluvasya Tathodwahya Yavani Baudhtatapar".</ref>

In addition to this matrimonial recognition or alliance, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, [[Megasthenes]], to the Mauryan court at [[Pataliputra]] (Modern [[Patna]] in [[Bihar state]]).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=38}} Only short extracts remain of Megasthenes' description of the journey.<ref name="Keay" />

The two rulers seem to have been on very good terms, as classical sources have recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta sent various presents such as [[aphrodisiac]]s to Seleucus.{{sfn|Kosmin|2014|p=35}}<ref>"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]], ''The Deipnosophists'', [http://www.attalus.org/old/athenaeus1.html#c32 i.32 ]</ref>

Seleucus obtained knowledge of most of northern India, as explained by [[Pliny the Elder]] through his numerous embassies to the Mauryan Empire:

[[File:Mappa di Eratostene.jpg|thumb|350px|The Hellenistic world view after Seleucus: [[ancient world map]] of [[Eratosthenes]] (276–194 BC), incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors<ref>[http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html Source]</ref>]]
<blockquote>
The other parts of the country beyond the [[Hydaspes]], the farthest extent of Alexander's conquests were discovered and surveyed by Seleucus Nicator: namely

*from thence (the [[Hydaspes]]) to the [[Sydrus|Hesudrus]] 168 miles
*to the river [[Jomanes|Ioames]] ([[Yamuna]]) as much: and some copies add 5 miles more therto
*from thence to [[Ganges]] 112 miles
*to [[Rhodapha]] 119, and some say, that between them two it is no less than 325 miles.
*From it to [[Calinipaxa]], a great town 167 miles-and-a-half, others say 265.
*And to the confluent of the rivers [[Iomanes]] and Ganges, where both meet together, 225 miles, and many put thereto 13 miles more
*from thence to the town [[Pataliputra|Palibotta]] 425 miles
*and so to the mouth of the Ganges where he falleth into the sea 638 miles.  — Pliny the Elder, Natural history, Book 6, Chap 21<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/holland/pliny6.html Pliny, Natural History, Book 6, Chap 17] also [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 Pliny the Elder, Natural history, Book 6, Chap 21] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728023626/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 |date=28 July 2013 }}</ref>
</blockquote>

Seleucus apparently minted coins during his stay in India, as several coins in his name are in the Indian standard and have been excavated in India. These coins describe him as "Basileus" ("King"), which implies a date later than 306 BC. Some of them also mention Seleucus in association with his son Antiochus as king, which would also imply a date as late as 293 BC. No Seleucid coins were struck in India thereafter and confirm the reversal of territory west of the Indus to Chandragupta.<ref>[http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/bactria.html#Seleucus%20and%20Antiochus Coinage of Seleucus and Antiochus in India]</ref>

Seleucus may have founded a navy in the [[Persian Gulf]] and in the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Grainger97" />

===Battle of Ipsus===
{{Main|Diadochi#Fourth War of the Diadochi, 308-301 BC}}
[[File:Seleucos coin MET.jpg|thumb|[[Tetradrachm]] of Seleucus I, minted at [[Susa]].<ref name="MC">{{cite journal |last1=Marest-Caffey |first1=L. |title=Seleukos I's Victory Coinage of Susa Revisited: A Die Study and Commentary |journal=American Journal of Numismatics |date=2016 |volume=28 |pages=1–64}}</ref> '''Obv''': Portrait of male figure (probably Seleucus, but possibly Alexander or Dionysus),<ref name="MC"/> wearing a leopard-skin helmet, with a bull's ear and horns. '''Rev''': [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], holding a wreath over a trophy, probably referring to the [[Battle of Ipsus]]. Legend "King Seleucus".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=Tetradrachm of Seleucus I |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/326156 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>]]
The war elephants Seleucus received from Chandragupta proved to be useful when the Diadochi finally decided to deal with Antigonus. Cassander, Seleucus and Lysimachus defeated Antigonus and Demetrius in the [[battle of Ipsus]]. Antigonus fell in battle, but Demetrius escaped. After the battle, Syria was placed under Seleucus' rule. He understood Syria to encompass the region from the [[Taurus mountains]] to [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]], but Ptolemy had already conquered [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Phoenicia]]. In 299 BC, Seleucus allied with Demetrius and married his daughter [[Stratonice of Syria|Stratonice]]. Stratonice was also the daughter of Antipater's daughter [[Phila (daughter of Antipater)|Phila]]. Seleucus had a daughter by Stratonice, who was also called [[Phila (daughter of Seleucus)|Phila]].<ref>[[John Malalas]], [http://www.attalus.org/translate/malalas.html#198 viii.198]</ref>

The fleet of Demetrius destroyed Ptolemy's fleet and thus Seleucus did not need to fight him.<ref name="Grainger97-55">Grainger 1997, p. 55–56</ref>

Seleucus, however, did not manage to enlarge his kingdom to the west. The main reason was that he did not have enough Greek troops. During the battle of Ipsus, he had less infantry than Lysimachus. His strength was in his war elephants and in traditional Persian cavalry. In order to enlarge his army, Seleucus tried to attract colonists from mainland Greece by founding four new cities—[[Seleucia Pieria]] and [[Laodicea in Syria]] on the coast and [[Antioch on the Orontes]] and [[Apamea (Syria)|Apameia]] in the [[Orontes River]] valley. [[Antioch]] became his chief seat of government. The new Seleucia was supposed to become his new naval base and a gateway to the Mediterranean. Seleucus also founded six smaller cities.<ref name="Grainger97-55" />

It is said of Seleucus that "few princes have ever lived with so great a passion for the building of cities. He is reputed to have built in all nine Seleucias, sixteen Antiochs, and six Laodiceas".<ref name="ebd">{{Eastons}}</ref>

===Defeat of Demetrius and Lysimachus===
[[File:Démétrios Ier Poliorcète (pièce).jpg|thumb|275x275px|Silver coin of Demetrius I Poliorcetes, with the Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ, ''Basileōs Dēmētriou,'' "of king Demetrius".]]
Seleucus nominated his son [[Antiochus I]] as his co-ruler and viceroy of the eastern provinces in 292 BC, the vast extent of the empire seeming to require a double government.<ref name=EB1911/> In 294 BC Stratonice married her stepson [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus]]. Seleucus reportedly instigated the marriage after discovering that his son was in danger of dying of love sickness.<ref>http://virtualreligion.net/iho/antiochus_1.html [[Antiochus I Soter]] entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith</ref> Seleucus was thus able to get Stratonice out of the way, as her father Demetrius had now become king of Macedonia.

The alliance between Seleucus and Demetrius ended in 294 BC when Seleucus conquered [[Cilicia]]. Demetrius invaded and easily conquered Cilicia in 286 BC, which meant that Demetrius was now threatening the most important regions of Seleucus' empire in Syria. Demetrius' troops, however, were tired and had not received their payment. Seleucus, on the other hand, was known as a cunning and rich leader who had earned the adoration of his soldiers. Seleucus blocked the roads leading south from Cilicia and urged Demetrius' troops to join his side. Simultaneously he tried to evade battle with Demetrius. Finally, Seleucus addressed Demetrius personally. He showed himself in front of the soldiers and removed his helmet, revealing his identity. Demetrius' troops now started to abandon their leader ''en masse''. Demetrius was finally imprisoned in Apameia and died a few years later in captivity.<ref name="Grainger97-55" />

Lysimachus and Ptolemy had supported Seleucus against Demetrius, but after the latter's defeat the alliance started to break apart. Lysimachus ruled Macedonia, [[Thracia]] and [[Asia Minor]]. He also had problems with his family. Lysimachus executed his son [[Agathocles (son of Lysimachus)|Agathocles]], whose wife [[Lysandra]] escaped to Babylon to Seleucus.<ref name="Grainger97-55" />

The unpopularity of Lysimachus after the murder of [[Agathocles (son of Lysimachus)|Agathocles]] gave Seleucus an opportunity to remove his last rival. His intervention in the west was solicited by [[Ptolemy Keraunos]], who, on the accession to the Egyptian throne of his brother [[Ptolemy II of Egypt|Ptolemy II]] (285 BC), had at first taken refuge with Lysimachus and then with Seleucus.<ref name=EB1911/> Seleucus then invaded Asia Minor and defeated his rival in the [[Battle of Corupedium]] in [[Lydia]], 281 BC. Lysimachus fell in battle. In addition, Ptolemy had died a few years earlier. Seleucus was thus now the only living contemporary of Alexander.<ref name="Grainger97-55" />

===Administration of Asia Minor===
Before his death, Seleucus tried to deal with the administration of Asia Minor. The region was ethnically diverse, consisting of Greek cities, a Persian aristocracy and indigenous peoples. Seleucus perhaps tried to defeat [[Cappadocia]], but failed. Lysimachus' old officer [[Philetairos]] ruled [[Pergamon]] independently. On the other hand, based on their names, Seleucus apparently founded a number of new cities in Asia Minor.<ref name="Grainger97-55" />

Few of the letters Seleucus sent to different cities and temples still exist. All cities in Asia Minor sent embassies to their new ruler. It is reported that Seleucus complained about the number of letters he received and was forced to read. He was apparently a popular ruler. In [[Lemnos]] he was celebrated as a liberator and a temple was built to honour him. According to a local custom, Seleucus was always offered an extra cup of wine during dinner time. His title during this period was Seleucus ''Soter'' ("saviour"). When Seleucus left for Europe, the organizational rearrangement of Asia Minor had not been completed.<ref name="Grainger97-55" />