Editing Romanticism (section)

===France===
{{Main|Romanticism in France}}
Romanticism was relatively late in developing [[19th-century French literature#Romanticism|in French literature]], more so than in the visual arts. The 18th-century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated with the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'', and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than those experiencing it at first-hand. The first major figure was [[François-René de Chateaubriand]], an aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to France from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had an uneasy relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential [[novella]] of exile ''[[René (novella)|René]]'' (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (''[[The Genius of Christianity|Génie du christianisme]]'', 1802), and finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous [[autobiography]] ''[[Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe]]'' ("Memoirs from beyond the grave").<ref>Christiansen, 202–03, 241–42.</ref>

[[File:Jean-Jacques Grandville - Frenzied Romans at the First Performance of Hernani - WGA10359.jpg|thumb|The "battle of ''[[Hernani (drama)|Hernani]]''" was fought nightly at the theatre in 1830: lithograph, by [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard Grandville|J. J. Grandville]]]]

After the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]], French Romanticism developed in the lively world of [[Theatre of France#19th century|Parisian theatre]], with productions of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that "Shakespeare, c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington" ("Shakespeare is [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]]'s [[aide-de-camp]]").<ref>Christiansen, 239–46, 240 quoted.</ref> [[Alexandre Dumas]] began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning with ''[[Henri III et sa cour]]'' (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in the manner of Scott, most famously ''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' and ''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]'', both of 1844. [[Victor Hugo]] published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on the stage with ''[[Hernani (drama)|Hernani]]''—a historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearean style that had famously riotous performances on its first run in 1830.<ref>Christiansen, 244–46.</ref> Like Dumas, Hugo is best known for his novels, and was already writing ''[[The Hunchback of Notre-Dame]]'' (1831), one of the best known works, which became a paradigm of the French Romantic movement. The preface to his unperformed play ''Cromwell'' gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models". The career of [[Prosper Mérimée]] followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story of ''[[Carmen (novella)|Carmen]]'', with his novella published 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the life of the English poet ''Chatterton'' (1835) perhaps his best work. [[George Sand]] was a central figure of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her affairs with [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] and several others;<ref>Christiansen</ref> she too was inspired by the theatre, and wrote works to be staged at her [[House of George Sand|private estate]].

French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include [[Alfred de Musset]], [[Gérard de Nerval]], [[Alphonse de Lamartine]] and the flamboyant [[Théophile Gautier]], whose prolific output in various forms continued until his death in 1872.

[[Stendhal]] is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into his characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the French [[French invasion of Russia#Retreat|retreat from Moscow]] in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are ''Le Rouge et le Noir'' (''[[The Red and the Black]]'', 1830) and ''La Chartreuse de Parme'' (''[[The Charterhouse of Parma]]'', 1839).