Editing Racial segregation (section)

=== Other countries ===
==== Canada ====
{{Main|Racial segregation in Canada}}
Racial segregation was widespread and deeply imbedded into the fabric of Canadian society prior to the Canadian constitution of 1982. Multiple court decisions, including one from the Supreme Court of Canada in 1939, upheld racial segregation as valid. The last black specifically segregated school closed in Ontario in 1965, while the last black specifically segregated school closed in Nova Scotia in 1983. The last racially segregated Indigenous school closed in 1996 in Saskatchewan.<ref name="ency">{{cite web|last1=Henry|first1=Natasha|title=Racial segregation of Black people in Canada|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/racial-segregation-of-black-people-in-canada|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|access-date=21 Dec 2022|archive-date=24 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324054026/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/racial-segregation-of-black-people-in-canada|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Canada has had multiple white only neighbourhoods and cities, white only public spaces, stores, universities, hospitals, employment, restaurants, theatres, sports arenas and universities. Though the black population in Canada was significantly less than the black population in the United States, severe restrictions on black people existed in all forms, particularly in immigration, employment access and mobility. Unlike in the United States, racial segregation in Canada applied to all non-whites and was historically enforced through laws, court decisions and social norms with a closed immigration system that barred virtually all non-whites from immigrating until 1962. Section 38 of the 1910 Immigration Act permitted the government to prohibit the entry of immigrants "belonging to any race deemed unsuited to the climate or requirements of Canada, or of immigrants of any specified class, occupation or character."<ref name="ency"/>

Racial segregation practices extended to many areas of employment in Canada. Black men and women in Quebec were historically relegated to the service sector regardless of their educational attainment. White business owners and even provincial and federal government agencies often did not hire black people, with explicit rules preventing their employment. When the labour movement took hold in Canada near the end of the 19th century, workers began organizing and forming trade unions with the aim of improving the working conditions and quality of life for employees. However, black workers were systematically denied membership to these unions, and worker's protection was reserved exclusively for whites.<ref name="ency"/>

==== South Africa ====
{{Main|Apartheid}}
[[File:DurbanSign1989.jpg|thumb|upright|left|"[[Apartheid]]": sign on Durban beach in English, [[Afrikaans]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]], 1989]]
The [[apartheid]] system carried out by [[Afrikaner]] minority rule enacted a nationwide social policy "separate development" with the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] victory in the [[1948 South African general election|1948 general election]], following the "colour bar"-discriminatory legislation dating back to the beginning of the [[Union of South Africa]] and the [[Boer Republics|Boer republics]] before which, while repressive to Black South Africans along with other minorities, had not gone nearly so far.

Apartheid laws can be generally divided into following acts. Firstly, the [[Population Registration Act, 1950|Population Registration Act]] in 1950 classified residents in South Africa into four racial groups: "black", "white", "[[Coloured]]", and "Indian" and noted their racial identities on their identifications. Secondly, the [[Group Areas Act]] in 1950 assigned different regions according to different races. People were forced to live in their corresponding regions and the action of passing the boundaries without a permit was made illegal, extending pass laws that had already curtailed black movement. Thirdly, under the [[Reservation of Separate Amenities Act, 1953|Reservation of Separate Amenities Act]] in 1953, amenities in public areas, like hospitals, universities and parks, were labeled separately according to particular races. In addition, the [[Bantu Education Act, 1953|Bantu Education Act]] in 1953 segregated national education in South Africa as well. Additionally, the government of the time enforced the [[pass laws]], which deprived Black South Africans of their right to travel freely within their own country. Under this system Black South Africans were severely restricted from urban areas, requiring authorisation from a white employer to enter.

Uprisings and protests against apartheid appeared immediately when apartheid arose. As early as 1949, the [[African National Congress Youth League|Youth League]] of the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) advocated the ending of apartheid and suggested fighting against racial segregation by various methods. During the following decades, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred, including those of the [[Black Consciousness Movement]], students' protests, labor strikes, and church group activism etc. In 1991, the [[Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act, 1991|Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act]] was passed, repealing laws enforcing racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zimmermann |first=Reinhard |title=Southern Cross: Civil Law and Common Law in South Africa |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1996 |page=90}}</ref> In 1994, [[Nelson Mandela]] won in the first [[1994 South African general election|multiracial democratic election]] in South Africa. His success fulfilled the ending of apartheid in South African history.
Despite this, the legacy of apartheid and segregationism is still ongoing to this day in South Africa with high [[racial inequality in post-apartheid South Africa]].

==== United States ====
{{Further|African-American history|Racism against African Americans|Racism in the United States|Slavery in the United States|Reconstruction Era|Gilded Age|Black Codes (United States)|Nadir of American race relations|Civil rights movement}}

In the United States, [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] was mandated by law in some states and enforced along with [[anti-miscegenation laws]] (prohibitions against [[interracial marriage]]), until the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] led by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] struck down racial segregation.<ref>E.g., Virginia [[Racial Integrity Act]], Virginia Code § 20–58 and § 20–59</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=americanhistory.si.edu |archive-date=13 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313032737/https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003223936/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2019 |website=William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483 |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en |archive-date=5 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905074149/https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en |archive-date=5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805163032/https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the passage of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] abolishing [[Slavery in the United States]], [[Jim Crow laws]] were introduced to codify [[Racism in the United States|racial discrimination]]. The laws mandated strict segregation of the races. Though many of these laws were passed shortly after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] ended, they only became formalized after the end of the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction era]] in 1877. The period that followed the Reconstruction era is known as the [[nadir of American race relations]]. 

[[File:ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg|thumb|left|Colored Sailors room in World War I]]

While the U.S. Supreme Court majority in the 1896 ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' case explicitly permitted "[[separate but equal]]" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]], in his [[dissenting opinion|dissent]], protested that the decision would "stimulate aggressions ... upon the admitted rights of colored citizens", "arouse race hate", and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between [the] races. Feelings between Whites and Blacks were so tense, even the jails were segregated."<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Eric Foner |last2=Randall Kennedy |date=3 May 2004 |title=Brown at 50 |publisher=The Nation |url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040503/fonerkennedy |access-date=18 January 2010 |archive-date=25 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825224228/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040503/fonerkennedy |url-status=live }}</ref>

Elected in 1912, President [[Presidency of Woodrow Wilson|Woodrow Wilson]] tolerated the extension of segregation throughout the federal government that was already underway.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=August Meier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/273560 |title=The Rise of Segregation in the Federal Bureaucracy, 1900–1930 |last2=Elliott Rudwick |journal=Phylon |year=1967 |volume=28 |pages=178–184 |issue=2 |publisher=Clark Atlanta University |doi=10.2307/273560 |jstor=273560 |access-date=9 December 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209130301/https://www.jstor.org/stable/273560 |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[World War I]], Blacks were drafted and served in the [[United States Army]] in [[Military history of African Americans#World War I|segregated units]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mjagkij |first=Nina |url=https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1021967 |title=Loyalty in time of trial: the African American experience during World War I |date=2011 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc |others=ProQuest (Firm) |series=African American history series |location=Lanham, Md |pages=106}}</ref> The U.S. military was still heavily segregated in World War II. The air force and the marines had no Blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were Blacks in the [[Seabee|Navy Seabees]]. The army had only five African-American officers.<ref name="fonerblack" /> In addition, no African-American would receive the [[Medal of Honor]] during the war, and their tasks in the war were largely reserved to noncombat units. Black soldiers had to sometimes give up their seats in trains to the [[German prisoners of war in the United States|Nazi prisoners of war]].<ref name="fonerblack">{{Cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History |date=1 February 2012 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0393935530 |edition=3 |page=696}}</ref>

A club which was central to the [[Harlem Renaissance]] in the 1920s, the [[Cotton Club]] in [[Harlem]], [[New York City]] was a whites-only establishment, where Blacks (such as [[Duke Ellington]]) were allowed to perform, but they were only allowed to perform in front of a white audience.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ella Fitzgerald |date=1989 |publisher=Holloway House Publishing |page=27}}</ref> In the reception to honor his success at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], [[Jesse Owens]] was not permitted to enter through the main doors of the [[Waldorf Astoria New York]] and instead forced to travel up to the event in a [[freight elevator]].<ref name="schwartz">{{Cite web |last=Schwartz |first=Larry |year=2007 |title=Owens pierced a myth |url=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016393.html |access-date=21 July 2024 |archive-date=6 July 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000706211910/http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016393.html |url-status=live }}</ref> 

The first black [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] recipient, actress [[Hattie McDaniel]], was not permitted to attend the premiere of ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' at [[Loew's Grand Theatre]] in [[Atlanta]] because of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia's]] segregation laws. During the [[12th Academy Awards]] ceremony at the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] in Los Angeles, McDaniel was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor.<ref name="LA segregation">{{Cite magazine |last=Abramovitch |first=Seth |date=19 February 2015 |title=Oscar's First Black Winner Accepted Her Honor in a Segregated 'No Blacks' Hotel in L.A. |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars-first-black-winner-accepted-774335 |magazine=The Hollywood Reporter |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-date=11 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111073046/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars-first-black-winner-accepted-774335 |url-status=live }}</ref> Her final wish to be buried in [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] was denied because the graveyard was restricted to Whites only.<ref name="LA segregation" />

On 11 September 1964, [[John Lennon]] announced [[the Beatles]] would not play to a segregated audience in [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], [[Florida]].<ref name="Concert" /> City officials relented following this announcement.<ref name="Concert">{{Cite news |title=The Beatles banned segregated audiences, contract shows |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-14963752 |access-date=17 July 2017 |archive-date=9 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609104021/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-14963752 |url-status=live }}</ref> A contract for a 1965 Beatles concert at the [[Cow Palace]] in [[California]] specifies that the band "not be required to perform in front of a segregated audience".<ref name="Concert" />

[[Sports in the United States|American sports]] were racially segregated until the mid-twentieth century. In [[Baseball in the United States|baseball]], the "[[Negro league baseball|Negro leagues]]" were established by [[Rube Foster]] for non-white players, such as Negro league baseball, which ran through the early 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lanctot |first=Neil |title=Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2008 |page=4}}</ref> In [[Basketball in the United States|basketball]], the [[Black Fives]] (all-black teams) were established in 1904, and emerged in [[New York City]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Chicago]], [[Pittsburgh]], [[Philadelphia]], and other cities. Racial segregation in basketball lasted until 1950 when the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] became racially integrated.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How 'Black Fives' led to racial integration in basketball |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27215799 |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-date=20 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920114126/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27215799 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:We want white tenants.jpg|thumb|left|White tenants seeking to prevent Blacks from moving into the housing project erected this sign. [[Detroit]], 1942.]]

Many U.S. states banned [[Interracial marriage in the United States|interracial marriage]], with [[Maryland]] passing the first [[Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|anti-miscegenation law]] in 1691.<ref>{{cite news |title=Interracial Marriage and the Law |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1965/10/interracial-marriage-and-the-law/660731/ |access-date=September 12, 2023 |work=The Atlantic |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928172507/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1965/10/interracial-marriage-and-the-law/660731/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Though opposed to slavery in the U.S., [[Abraham Lincoln]] stated during the [[Lincoln-Douglas Debates]] in 1858: 
<blockquote>
"I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people. I as much as any man am in favor of the superior position assigned to the white race".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abraham Lincoln |title=Speeches and Writings 1832–1858: Speeches, Letters, and Miscellaneous Writings : the Lincoln-Douglas Debates |publisher=Library of America |year=1989 |volume=1 |page=638}}</ref> 
</blockquote>

Likewise, when former president [[Harry S. Truman]] was asked by a reporter in 1963 if interracial marriage would become widespread in the U.S., he responded, "I hope not; I don’t believe in it", before asking a question often aimed at anyone advocating racial integration: "Would you want your daughter to marry a Negro? She won't love someone who isn't her color."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wallenstein |first1=Peter |title=Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law--An American History |date=2004 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |page=185}}</ref>

In 1958, [[Mildred and Richard Loving|Mildred Loving, a black woman, and Richard Loving, a white man]], were prosecuted in [[Virginia]] because their marriage violated the state's anti-miscegenation statute, the [[Racial Integrity Act of 1924]], which prohibited marriage between people classified as white and people classified as "[[colored]]" (persons of non-white ancestry).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Dionne |date=10 June 2007 |title=Pioneer of interracial marriage looks back |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-06-10-loving_N.htm |access-date=23 August 2015 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407112813/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-06-10-loving_N.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite wikisource |title=Racial Integrity Act of 1924 |wslink=Racial Integrity Act of 1924 |via=Wikisource}}</ref> Although their one-year prison sentence was suspended, in 1963 they sought the assistance of the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], which filed an appeal on their behalf that eventually found its way to the [[United States Supreme Court]]. In 1967 the court issued a historic ruling in ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' that invalidated all laws prohibiting interracial marriage in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawing |first=Charles B. |title=''Loving v. Virginia'' and the Hegemony of "Race" |url=http://www.charlielawing.com/modhist_lovingv.virginia.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704053526/http://www.charlielawing.com/modhist_lovingv.virginia.pdf |archive-date=4 July 2007 |access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger on a segregated municipal bus in Montgomery, Alabama.jpg|thumb|[[Rosa Parks]] being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person]]

Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice during the [[civil rights movement]] by the efforts of such civil rights activists as [[Clarence M. Mitchell Jr.]], [[Rosa Parks]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[James Farmer]] working for social and political freedom during the period from the end of World War II through the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] desegregation order of 1961, the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] in 1964 and the [[Voting Rights Act]] in 1965 supported by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. Many of their efforts were acts of [[Nonviolence|non-violent]] [[civil disobedience]] aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding [[sit-in]]s at all-white [[wikt:diner|diners]].

By 1968, all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] under [[Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]], and by 1970 support for formal legal segregation had dissolved.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=americanhistory.si.edu |archive-date=13 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313032737/https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Earl Warren, 83, Who Led High Court In Time of Vast Social Change, Is Dead |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0319.html |access-date=1 September 2019 |website=archive.nytimes.com |archive-date=1 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701083148/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0319.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Warren Court]]'s decision on landmark case ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' of [[Topeka, Kansas]] in 1954 outlawed segregation in public schools, and its decision on ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States]]'' in 1964 prohibits racial segregation and discrimination in public institutions and [[Public accommodations in the United States|public accommodations]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brown v. Board of Education |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en |archive-date=12 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312225845/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Robert L. |date=1968 |title=The Warren Court and Desegregation |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4901&context=mlr |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=237–248 |doi=10.2307/1287417 |jstor=1287417 |access-date=22 August 2020 |archive-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619215556/https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4901&context=mlr |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |access-date=23 September 2019 |website=Oyez |language=en |archive-date=5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805163032/https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Fair Housing Act]] of 1968, administered and enforced by the [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]], prohibited discrimination in the sale and rental of housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability. Formal racial discrimination became illegal in school systems, businesses, the American military, other civil services and the government. However, implicit racism continues to this day through avenues like [[occupational segregation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=ALONSO-VILLAR |first1=OLGA |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x |title=The Extent of Occupational Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender |last2=DEL RIO |first2=CORAL |last3=GRADIN |first3=CARLOS |date=April 2012 |journal=Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society |volume=51 |pages=179–212 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-232x.2012.00674.x |issue=2 |s2cid=154675302}}</ref> In recent years, there has been a trend that reverses those efforts to desegregate schools made by those mandatory school desegregation orders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fiel |first1=Jeremy |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/703044 |title=With all deliberate speed: The reversal of court-ordered school desegregation, 1970–2013. |last2=Zhang |first2=Yongjun |date=2019 |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=124 |pages=1685–1719 |doi=10.1086/703044 |hdl=10150/633639 |hdl-access=free |issue=6 |s2cid=195572605 |access-date=16 June 2021 |archive-date=27 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627180414/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/703044 |url-status=live }}</ref>