Editing Qing dynasty (section)

===Central government agencies===
The formal structure of the Qing government centred on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries{{efn|{{zh|c=六部|p=lìubù|links=no}}}}), each headed by two presidents{{efn|{{zhi|first=t|t=尚書|s=尚书|p=shàngshū}}; {{Lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠠᠯᡳᡥᠠ<br />ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ}} |v=aliha amban|a=aliha amban}}}} and assisted by four vice presidents.{{efn|{{zhi|p=shìláng|c=侍郎}}; {{Lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠠᠰᡥᠠᠨ ᡳ<br />ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ}} |v=ashan i amban|a=ashan-i amban}}}} In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the [[Imperial examination|state examinations]]. The [[Grand Secretariat]],{{efn|{{zhi|first=t|p=nèigé|t=內閣|s=内阁}}; {{Lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᡩᠣᡵᡤᡳ<br />ᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ}} |v=dorgi yamun|a=dorgi yamun}}}} which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]]. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "[[Outer Court]]", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the [[Forbidden City]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhu |first=Jianfei |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zk8IeVWD210C&dq=%22qing%22+%22outer+court%22&pg=PA133 |title=Chinese Spatial Strategies: Imperial Beijing, 1420–1911 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-36620-0 |page=133}}</ref>
[[File:The emperor of China from 'The Universal Traveller'.jpg|thumb|upright|''The emperor of China from The Universal Traveller'']]

In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "[[Inner Court]]", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the [[Grand Council (Qing dynasty)|Grand Council]].{{efn|{{zhi|first=t|p=jūnjī chù|t=軍機處|s=军机处}}; {{Lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠴᠣᡠ᠋ᡥᠠᡳ<br />ᠨᠠᠰᡥᡡᠨ ᡳ<br />ᠪᠠ}} |v=coohai nashūn i ba|a=qouhai nashvn-i ba}}}} It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the [[Yongzheng Emperor]] as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralising authority under the crown.{{sfnp|Bartlett|1991}} The Grand Councillors{{efn|{{zh|first=t|p=jūnjī dàchén|t=軍機大臣|s=军机大臣|links=no}}}} served as a sort of [[privy council]] to the emperor.
[[File:Qing Dynasty-2000 wen-1859.jpg|thumb|upright|2000–[[Chinese cash (currency)|cash]] [[Great Qing Treasure Note]] banknote from 1859]]

From the early Qing, the central government was characterised by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Rise of the Manchus |url=https://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial3.html#regain |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218120420/http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial3.html#regain |archive-date=18 December 2008 |access-date=2008-10-19 |publisher=University of Maryland}}</ref> While the Qing government was established as an [[absolute monarchy]] like previous dynasties in China, by the early 20th century however the Qing court began to move towards a [[constitutional monarchy]],<ref>{{Cite book |first=Albert H. Y. |last=Chen |title=The Changing Legal Orders in Hong Kong and Mainland China |publisher=City University of Hong Kong Press |year=2021 |isbn=9789629374501 |page=372}}</ref> with government bodies like the [[Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)|Advisory Council]] established and a [[1909 Chinese parliamentary election|parliamentary election]] to [[Preparative Constitutionalism|prepare for a constitutional government]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=David |last=Atwill |title=Sources in Chinese History: Diverse Perspectives from 1644 to the Present |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2021 |isbn=9780429560347 |page=272}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Jianlang |author-mask=Wang Jianlang (王建朗) |script-title=zh:两岸新编中国近代史．晚清卷 |publisher=Shehui kexuewen xianchubanshe |year=2016 |page=530 |language=zh}}</ref>

There was also another government institution called [[Imperial Household Department]] which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the [[Shunzhi Emperor]] and the accession of his son, the [[Kangxi Emperor]].{{sfnp|Rawski|1998|p=179}} The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the [[Forbidden City#Inner Court or the Northern Section|inner palace]] (in which tasks it largely replaced [[Chinese eunuch|eunuchs]]), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with [[History of Tibet#Khoshuts, Zunghars, and Manchus|Tibet]] and [[Mongolia during Qing rule|Mongolia]], engaged in trading activities (jade, [[ginseng]], salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the [[Jiangnan]] region, and even published books.{{sfnp|Rawski|1998|pp=179–180}} [[Salt in Chinese History#Prosperity, culture, corruption, reform in the Qing dynasty|Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants]], such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by ''[[Booi Aha|booi]]'',{{efn|{{zh|p=bāoyī|c=包衣|links=no}}; {{Lang-mnc|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠪᠣᡠ᠋ᡳ}} |v=booi|a=boui}}}} or "bondservants", from the Upper Three [[Eight Banners|Banners]].{{sfnp|Torbert|1977|p=27}} By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.{{sfnp|Rawski|1998|p=179}}{{sfnp|Torbert|1977|p=28}}