Editing Q fever (section)

==In animals==
Q fever can affect many species of domestic and wild animals, including ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, bison,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Didkowska A, Klich D, Hapanowicz A, Orłowska B, Gałązka M, Rzewuska M, Olech W, Anusz K | display-authors = 6 | title = Pathogens with potential impact on reproduction in captive and free-ranging European bison (Bison bonasus) in Poland - a serological survey | journal = BMC Veterinary Research | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 345 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34736464 | doi = 10.1186/s12917-021-03057-8 | pmc = 8567710 | doi-access = free }}</ref> deer species<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rijks JM, Roest HI, van Tulden PW, Kik MJ, IJzer J, Gröne A | title = Coxiella burnetii infection in roe deer during Q fever epidemic, the Netherlands | journal = Emerging Infectious Diseases | volume = 17 | issue = 12 | pages = 2369–2371 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22172398 | doi = 10.3201/eid1712.110580 | pmc = 3311195 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirchgessner MS, Dubovi EJ, Whipps CM | title = Seroepidemiology of Coxiella burnetii in wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in New York, United States | journal = Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases | volume = 12 | issue = 11 | pages = 942–947 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22989183 | doi = 10.1089/vbz.2011.0952 }}</ref>...), carnivores (dogs, cats,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cyr J, Turcotte MÈ, Desrosiers A, Bélanger D, Harel J, Tremblay D, Leboeuf A, Gagnon CA, Côté JC, Arsenault J | display-authors = 6 | title = Prevalence of ''Coxiella burnetii'' seropositivity and shedding in farm, pet and feral cats and associated risk factors in farm cats in Quebec, Canada | journal = Epidemiology and Infection | volume = 149 | pages = e57 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33583452 | doi = 10.1017/s0950268821000364 | pmc = 8060820 }}</ref> seals<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Conway R, Duncan C, Foster RA, Kersh GJ, Raverty S, Gelatt T, Frank C | title = Histologic lesions in placentas of northern fur seals (callorhinus ursinus) from a population with high placental prevalence of ''coxiella burnetii'' | journal = Journal of Wildlife Diseases | volume = 58 | issue = 2 | pages = 333–340 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 35245373 | doi = 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00037 | s2cid = 247236730 | pmc = 11290099 }}</ref>...), rodents,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pascucci I, Di Domenico M, Dall'Acqua F, Sozio G, Cammà C | title = Detection of Lyme Disease and Q Fever Agents in Wild Rodents in Central Italy | journal = Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 404–411 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26134933 | doi = 10.1089/vbz.2015.1807 | pmc = 4507354 }}</ref> reptiles and birds. However, [[ruminants]] (cattle, goats, and sheep) are the most frequently affected animals, and can serve as a reservoir for the bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arricau-Bouvery |first1=Nathalie |last2=Rodolakis |first2=Annie |date=May 2005 |title=Is Q Fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis? |journal=Veterinary Research |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=327–349 |doi=10.1051/vetres:2005010 |pmid=15845229 |issn=0928-4249|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Clinical signs ===
In contrast to humans, though a respiratory and cardiac infection could be experimentally reproduced in cattle,<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Plommet M, Capponi M, Gestin J, Renoux G, Marly J, Sahuc D, Petit A|language=fr |title=FIÈVRE Q EXPÉRIMENTALE DES BOVINS|journal=Annales de Recherches Vétérinaires|oclc=862686843|year=1973|volume=4|issue=2|pages=325–346}}</ref> the clinical signs mainly affect the reproductive system. Q fever in ruminants is, therefore, mainly responsible for abortions, metritis, retained placenta, and infertility.

The clinical signs vary between species. In small [[ruminants]] (sheep and goats), it is dominated by abortions, premature births, stillbirths, and the birth of weak lambs or kids. One of the characteristics of abortions in goats is that they are very frequent and clustered in the first year or two after contamination of the farm. This is known as an abortion storm.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Arricau-Bouvery N, Rodolakis A | title = Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis? | journal = Veterinary Research | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 327–349 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15845229 | doi = 10.1051/vetres:2005010 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In cattle, although abortions also occur, they are less frequent and more sporadic. The clinical picture is rather dominated by nonspecific signs such as placental retentions, metritis, and consequent fertility disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = De Biase D, Costagliola A, Del Piero F, Di Palo R, Coronati D, Galiero G, Uberti BD, Lucibelli MG, Fabbiano A, Davoust B, Raoult D, Paciello O | display-authors = 6 | title = Coxiella burnetii in Infertile Dairy Cattle With Chronic Endometritis | journal = Veterinary Pathology | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 539–542 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29566608 | doi = 10.1177/0300985818760376 | s2cid = 4268347 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Valla G |title=Prevalenza di Coxiella burnetii nel latte di massa in allevamenti di bovine da latte italiani e possibile correlazione con problemi riproduttivi |url=https://www.vetjournal.it/images/archive/pdf_riviste/4649.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Ordronneau S  |url= http://worldcat.org/oclc/836117348 |title=Impact de la vaccination et de l'antibiothérapie sur l'incidence des troubles de la reproduction et sur la fertilité dans des troupeaux bovins laitiers infectés par Coxiella Burnetii |oclc=836117348}}</ref>

=== Epidemiology ===
With the exception of New Zealand, which is currently free of Q fever, the disease is present throughout the world. Numerous epidemiological surveys have been carried out. They have shown that about one in three cattle farms and one in four sheep or goat farms are infected,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Guatteo R, Seegers H, Taurel AF, Joly A, Beaudeau F | title = Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii infection in domestic ruminants: a critical review | journal = Veterinary Microbiology | volume = 149 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–16 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21115308 | doi = 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.10.007 }}</ref> but wide variations are seen between studies and countries. In China, Iran, Great Britain, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Spain, the US, Belgium, Denmark, Croatia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Serbia, Slovenia, and Jordan, for example, more than 50% of cattle herds were infected with Q fever.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pexara A, Solomakos N, Govaris A | title = Q fever and seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii in domestic ruminants | journal = Veterinaria Italiana | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 265–279 | date = December 2018 | pmid = 30681125 | doi = 10.12834/VetIt.1113.6046.3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Pexara A, Solomakos N, Govaris A |date=2018-01-01 |title=Q fever and prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in milk |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=71 |pages=65–72 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2017.11.004 |issn=0924-2244}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dobos A, Gábor G, Wehmann E, Dénes B, Póth-Szebenyi B, Kovács ÁB, Gyuranecz M | title = Serological screening for Coxiella burnetii in the context of early pregnancy loss in dairy cows | journal = Acta Veterinaria Hungarica | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 305–309 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 33156002 | doi = 10.1556/004.2020.00035 | s2cid = 226269478 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dobos A, Fodor I | title = Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in bovine placentas in Hungary and Slovakia: Detection of a novel sequence type - Short communication | journal = Acta Veterinaria Hungarica | volume = 69 | issue = 4 | pages = 303–307 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34735368 | doi = 10.1556/004.2021.00047 | s2cid = 243762186 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Obaidat MM, Kersh GJ | title = Prevalence and Risk Factors of Coxiella burnetii Antibodies in Bulk Milk from Cattle, Sheep, and Goats in Jordan | journal = Journal of Food Protection | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 561–566 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28272921 | pmc = 6489127 | doi = 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-16-377 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Espí A, Del Cerro A, Oleaga Á, Rodríguez-Pérez M, López CM, Hurtado A, Rodríguez-Martínez LD, Barandika JF, García-Pérez AL | display-authors = 6 | title = One Health Approach: An Overview of Q Fever in Livestock, Wildlife and Humans in Asturias (Northwestern Spain) | journal = Animals | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 1395 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 34068431 | pmc = 8153578 | doi = 10.3390/ani11051395 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Agger JF, Paul S | title = Increasing prevalence of Coxiella burnetii seropositive Danish dairy cattle herds | journal = Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 46 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25056416 | pmc = 4115160 | doi = 10.1186/s13028-014-0046-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Infected animals shed the bacteria by three routes - genital discharge, faeces, and milk.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Guatteo R, Beaudeau F, Joly A, Seegers H | title = Coxiella burnetii shedding by dairy cows | journal = Veterinary Research | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 849–860 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17903418 | doi = 10.1051/vetres:2007038 | doi-access = free }}</ref>  Excretion is greatest at the time of parturition or abortion, and placentas and aborted fetuses are the main sources of bacteria, particularly in goats.

As ''C. burnetii'' is small and resistant in the environment, it is easily airborne and can be transmitted from one farm to another, even if several kilometres away.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hawker JI, Ayres JG, Blair I, Evans MR, Smith DL, Smith EG, Burge PS, Carpenter MJ, Caul EO, Coupland B, Desselberger U, Farrell ID, Saunders PJ, Wood MJ | display-authors = 6 | title = A large outbreak of Q fever in the West Midlands: windborne spread into a metropolitan area? | journal = Communicable Disease and Public Health | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 180–187 | date = September 1998 | pmid = 9782633 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9782633 }}</ref>

=== Control ===

==== Biosecurity measures ====
Based on the epidemiological data, [[biosecurity]] measures can be derived:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Plummer |first1=Paul J. |last2=McClure |first2=J.Trenton |last3=Menzies |first3=Paula |last4=Morley |first4=Paul S. |last5=Van den Brom |first5=René |last6=Van Metre |first6=David C. |date=September 2018 |title=Management of Coxiella burnetii infection in livestock populations and the associated zoonotic risk: A consensus statement |journal=Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine |language=en |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=1481–1494 |doi=10.1111/jvim.15229 |pmc=6189356 |pmid=30084178}}</ref>
* The spread of manure from infected farms should be avoided in windy conditions
* The level of hygiene must be very high during parturition and fetal annexes, and fetuses must be collected and destroyed as soon as possible

==== Medical measures ====
A vaccine for cattle, goats, and sheep exists. It reduces clinical expression such as abortions and decreases excretion of the bacteria by the animals leading to control of Q fever in herds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/veterinary/EPAR/coxevac|title=Coxevac &#124; European Medicines Agency|date=17 September 2018 }}</ref>

In addition, vaccination of herds against Q fever has been shown to reduce the risk of human infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roest HI, Tilburg JJ, van der Hoek W, Vellema P, van Zijderveld FG, Klaassen CH, Raoult D | title = The Q fever epidemic in The Netherlands: history, onset, response and reflection | journal = Epidemiology and Infection | volume = 139 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–12 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 20920383 | doi = 10.1017/S0950268810002268 | s2cid = 29026616 | doi-access = free }}</ref>