Editing Old English literature (section)

=== Oral tradition ===
{{Main|Oral-formulaic theory in Anglo-Saxon poetry}}

Even though all extant Old English poetry is written and literate, many scholars propose that Old English poetry was an oral craft that was performed by a ''[[scop]]'' and accompanied by a [[harp]].{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The hypotheses of [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] on the [[Homeric Question]] came to be applied (by Parry and Lord, but also by [[Francis Magoun]]) to verse written in [[Old English]]. That is, the theory proposes that certain features of at least some of the poetry may be explained by positing [[oral-formulaic composition]]. While Old English [[epic poetry]] may bear some resemblance to [[Ancient Greek]] [[Epic poetry|epics]] such as the ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'', the question of if and how Anglo-Saxon poetry was passed down through an [[oral tradition]] remains a subject of debate, and the question for any particular poem unlikely to be answered with perfect certainty.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Parry and Lord had already demonstrated the density of metrical formulas in [[Ancient Greek]], and observed the same feature in the Old English alliterative line:

<blockquote><poem>''Hroþgar maþelode helm Scildinga'' ("Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scildings")
''Beoƿulf maþelode bearn Ecgþeoƿes'' ("Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow")</poem></blockquote>

In addition to verbal formulas, many themes have been shown to appear among the various works of Anglo-Saxon literature. The theory suggests a reason for this: the poetry was composed of formulae and themes from a stock common to the poetic profession, as well as literary passages composed by individual artists in a more modern sense. [[Larry Benson]] introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes.{{sfn|Foley|1985|p=42|ps=; Foley cites {{harvtxt|Benson|1966}}.}} Frequent oral-formulaic themes in Old English poetry include "Beasts of Battle"{{sfn|Magoun|1953}} and the "Cliff of Death".{{sfn|Fry|1987}} The former, for example, is characterised by the mention of ravens, eagles, and wolves preceding particularly violent depictions of battle. Among the most thoroughly documented themes is "The Hero on the Beach". [[D. K. Crowne]] first proposed this theme, defined by four characteristics:
* A Hero on the Beach.
* Accompanying "Retainers".
* A Flashing Light.
* The Completion or Initiation of a Journey.

One example Crowne cites in his article is that which concludes Beowulf's fight with the monsters during his swimming match with Breca:

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Beowulf (562-570a)
! Modern English !! West Saxon
|- align="center"
| Those sinful creatures had no<br />fill of rejoicing that they consumed me,<br />assembled at feast at the sea bottom;<br />rather, in the morning, wounded by blades<br />they lay up on the shore, put to sleep by swords,<br />so that never after did they hinder sailors<br />in their course on the sea.<br />The light came from the east,<br />the bright beacon of God.
|
{|
| align="right"| Næs hie ðære fylle<br />manfordædlan,<br />symbel ymbsæton<br />ac on mergenne<br />be yðlafe<br />sƿeordum asƿefede,<br />ymb brontne<br />lade ne letton.<br />beorht beacen godes;
| align="left"| /  gefean hæfdon,<br />/ þæt hie me þegon,<br />/ sægrunde neah;<br />/ mecum ƿunde<br />/ uppe lægon,<br />/ þæt syðþan na<br />/ ford brimliðende<br />/ Leoht eastan com,<br />/ ...
|}

|}

Crowne drew on examples of the theme's appearance in twelve Old English texts, including one occurrence in [[Beowulf]].{{sfn|Crowne|1960}} It was also observed in other works of Germanic origin, Middle English poetry, and even an Icelandic prose saga. John Richardson held that the schema was so general as to apply to virtually any character at some point in the narrative, and thought it an instance of the "threshold" feature of [[Joseph Campbell]]'s [[monomyth|Hero's Journey monomyth]]. J.A. Dane, in an article{{sfn|Dane|1982}} (characterised by Foley as "polemics without rigour"{{sfn|Foley|1985|p=200}}) claimed that the appearance of the theme in [[Ancient Greek]] poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet." Foley's response was that Dane misunderstood the nature of oral tradition, and that in fact the appearance of the theme in other cultures showed that it was a traditional form.{{sfn|Foley|1985}}