Editing Nuclear warfare (section)

=== Post-Cold War ===
{{See also|Second Cold War}}

Although the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] ended the [[Cold War]] in 1991 and greatly reduced the political tensions between the [[United States]] and the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], the Soviet Union's formal successor state, both countries remained in a "nuclear stand-off" due to the continuing presence of a very large number of deliverable nuclear warheads on both sides. Additionally, the end of the Cold War led the United States to become increasingly concerned with the development of nuclear technology by other nations outside of the former Soviet Union. In 1995, a branch of the U.S. Strategic Command produced an outline of forward-thinking strategies in the document "[[Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence]]".

In 1995, a [[Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant sounding rocket]] launched from the [[Andøya Space Center]] caused a high alert in [[Russia]], known as the [[Norwegian rocket incident|Norwegian Rocket Incident]]. The Russians thought it might be a nuclear missile launched from an American submarine.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/military/nuclear-false-alarms.html |title=False Alarms in the Nuclear Age |author=Forden, Geoffrey |date=November 6, 2001 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System |work=NOVA }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Pry, Peter |title=War scare: Russia and America on the nuclear brink |publisher=Praeger |location=New York |year=1999 |chapter=Black Brant XII |pages=214–227 |isbn=0-275-96643-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WigJ8ZsWE1QC&pg=PA214}}</ref>

In 1996, a Russian [[Continuity of government#Soviet Union and Russia|continuity of government facility]], [[Kosvinsky Mountain]], which is believed to be a counterpart to the US [[Cheyenne Mountain Complex]], was completed.<ref name="web.archive.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.windowonheartland.net/2012/02/russias-top-secret-bases.html |title=WINDOW ON HEARTLAND Geopolitical notes on Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424050959/http://www.windowonheartland.net/2012/02/russias-top-secret-bases.html |archive-date=April 24, 2013 }}</ref> It was designed to resist US [[nuclear bunker buster|earth-penetrating nuclear warheads]],<ref name="web.archive.org"/> and is believed to host the Russian [[Strategic Rocket Forces]] alternate command post, a post for the general staff built to compensate for the vulnerability of older Soviet era command posts in the Moscow region. In spite of this, the primary command posts for the [[Strategic Rocket Forces]] remains [[Kuntsevo]] in Moscow and the secondary is the Kosvinsky Mountain in the [[Ural Mountains]].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} The timing of the Kosvinsky facilities completion date is regarded as one explanation for U.S. interest in a new nuclear "bunker buster" Earth-penetrating warhead and the declaration of the deployment of the [[B61 nuclear bomb|B-61]] mod 11 in 1997; Kosvinsky is protected by about 1000 feet of [[granite]].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

[[File:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.svg|thumb|230px|UN vote on adoption of the [[Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]] on 7 July 2017<br />{{legend table|#008cff|Yes|#ff0000|No|#c0c0c0|Did not vote}}]]
As a consequence of the [[September 11 attacks]], American forces immediately increased their readiness to the highest level in 28 years, closing the blast doors of the NORAD's [[Cheyenne Mountain Complex|Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center]] for the first time due to a non-exercise event. But unlike similar increases during the Cold War, Russia immediately decided to stand down a large military exercise in the Arctic region, in order to minimize the risk of incidents, rather than following suit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=a1115putinspeaks|title=Context of '(After 11:15 a.m.) September 11, 2001: Russian President Putin Speaks with President Bush'|access-date=April 28, 2013|archive-date=February 15, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215191043/http://historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=a1115putinspeaks|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The former chair of the [[United Nations]] [[Nuclear disarmament|disarmament]] committee stated that there are more than 16,000 strategic and tactical nuclear weapons ready for deployment and another 14,000 in storage, with the U.S. having nearly 7,000 ready for use and 3,000 in storage, and Russia having about 8,500 ready for use and 11,000 in storage. In addition, [[China]] is thought to possess about 400 nuclear weapons, [[United Kingdom|Britain]] about 200, [[France]] about 350, [[India]] about 80–100, and [[Pakistan]] 100–110. [[North Korea]] is confirmed as having nuclear weapons, though it is not known how many, with most estimates between 1 and 10. [[Israel]] is also widely believed to [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|possess usable nuclear weapons]]. NATO has [[Nuclear sharing|stationed]] about 480 American nuclear weapons in [[Belgium]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and [[Turkey]], and several other nations are thought to be in pursuit of an arsenal of their own.<ref>[http://lfpress.ca/newsstand/CityandRegion/2006/02/14/1441292-sun.html London Free Press – Disarmament expert warns of nuclear threat] Non functioning link</ref>

[[Pakistan]]'s nuclear policy was significantly affected by the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965 war with India]].<ref name="Chakma2004">{{cite book|author=Bhumitra Chakma|title=Strategic Dynamics and Nuclear Weapons Proliferation in South Asia: A Historical Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2qmF8E8C9EC&pg=PA133|year=2004|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-03910-382-9|page=133}}</ref> The 1971 war and India's nuclear program played a role in Pakistan's decision to go nuclear.<ref name="Chakma2012">{{citation|first=Bhumitra|last=Chakma|title=Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XTbOO0gVgR0C|date=12 October 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-13254-6|page=156}}</ref> India and Pakistan both decided not to participate in the NPT.<ref>{{harvnb|Chakma|2012|p=16}}</ref> Pakistan's nuclear policy became fixated on India because India refused to join the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|Non-proliferation Treaty]] and remained open to nuclear weapons.<ref name="Khan2014">{{cite book|author=Zafar Khan|title=Pakistan's Nuclear Policy: A Minimum Credible Deterrence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW8KBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35|date=17 July 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-67601-0|page=23}}</ref> Impetus by Indian actions spurred Pakistan's nuclear research.<ref name="Hymans2012">{{cite book|author=Jacques E. C. Hymans|title=Achieving Nuclear Ambitions: Scientists, Politicians, and Proliferation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wc-hZbyPhgsC&pg=PA244|date=16 February 2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-76700-2|page=244}}</ref> After nuclear weapons construction was started by President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]]'s command, the chair of [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] Usmani quit in objection.<ref>{{harvnb|Chakma|2012|p=139}}</ref> The [[Kargil War|1999 war]] between Pakistan and India occurred after both acquired nuclear weapons.<ref>{{citation|first=Dr Bhumitra|last=Chakma|title=The Politics of Nuclear Weapons in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-yhAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA213|date=28 April 2013|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-7641-2|page=213}}</ref> It is believed by some that nuclear weapons are the reason a big war has not broken out in the subcontinent.<ref>{{citation|first=Bhumitra|last=Chakma|title=South Asia's Nuclear Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oW7fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT54|date=17 December 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-58688-3}}</ref> India and Pakistan still have a risk of nuclear conflict on the issue of war over [[Kashmir]]. Nuclear capability deliverable by sea were claimed by Pakistan in 2012.<ref name="Gregory2015">{{cite book|author=Shaun Gregory|title=Democratic Transition and Security in Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=acfMCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA250|date=23 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-55011-2|page=250}}</ref> The aim was to achieve a "minimum credible deterrence".<ref>{{harvnb|Chakma|2014|p=–}}</ref> Pakistan's nuclear program culminated in the tests at [[Chagai-I|Chagai]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chakma|2013|p=234}}</ref> One of the aims of Pakistan's programs is fending off potential annexation and maintaining independence.<ref>{{harvnb|Chakma|2012|p=140}}</ref>

A key development in nuclear warfare throughout the 2000s and early 2010s is the [[nuclear proliferation|proliferation]] of nuclear weapons to the [[Developing country|developing world]], with [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] both publicly testing several nuclear devices, and [[North Korea]] conducting an underground nuclear test on October 9, 2006. The [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] measured a 4.2 magnitude earthquake in the area where the North Korean test is said to have occurred. A further test was announced by the North Korean government on May 25, 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/8067438.stm|title=BBC NEWS – Asia-Pacific – N Korea faces new UN resolution|date=26 May 2009}}</ref> [[Iran]], meanwhile, has embarked on a nuclear program which, while officially for civilian purposes, has come under close scrutiny by the United Nations and many individual states.

Recent studies undertaken by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] cite the enduring [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|India-Pakistan conflict]] as the one "flash point" most likely to escalate into a nuclear war. During the [[Kargil War]] in 1999, Pakistan came close to using its nuclear weapons in case the conventional military situation underwent further deterioration.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1989886.stm|title=Pakistan 'prepared nuclear strike'|work=BBC News|date = 16 May 2002}}</ref> Pakistan's foreign minister had even warned that it would "use any weapon in our arsenal", hinting at a nuclear strike against India.<ref>"Pakistan May Use Any Weapon," The News, Islamabad, May 31, 1999</ref> The statement was condemned by the international community, with Pakistan denying it later on. This conflict remains the only war (of any sort) between two declared nuclear powers. The [[2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff]] again stoked fears of nuclear war between the two countries. Despite these very serious and relatively recent threats, relations between India and Pakistan have been improving somewhat over the last few years. However, with the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|November 26, 2008 Mumbai terror attacks]], tensions again worsened.
{{External media |float=right | image1 = [https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10215450632937597&set=p.10215450632937597&type=3 A geopolitical example of nuclear strike plan of ROC Army in Kinmen history. Effective Radius: 10 km; Pop.: 1.06 million]}}
[[File:World nuclear weapons.png|thumb|right|330px|Large stockpile with global range (dark blue), smaller stockpile with global range (medium blue), small stockpile with regional range (light blue).]]
Another potential geopolitical issue that is considered particularly worrisome by military analysts is a possible conflict between the [[United States]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] over [[Taiwan]]. Although economic forces are thought to have reduced the possibility of a military conflict, there remains concern about the increasing military buildup of [[China]] (China is rapidly increasing its naval capacity), and that any move toward [[Taiwan independence]] could potentially spin out of control.

[[Israel]] is thought to possess somewhere between one hundred and four hundred nuclear warheads. It has been asserted that the [[Dolphin-class submarine]]s which Israel received from Germany have been adapted to carry nuclear-armed [[Popeye (missile)|Popeye cruise missiles]], so as to give Israel a [[second strike]] capability.<ref>{{cite news|work = The Boston Globe|url= https://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2006/08/25/israel_buys_2_nuclear_capable_submarines_from_germany/|first = Ramit |date = 25 August 2006|last = Plushnick-Masti |title= Israel buys 2 nuclear-capable submarines from Germany|agency=Associated Press}}</ref> Israel has been involved in wars with its neighbors in the [[Middle East]] (and with other "[[non-state actor]]s" in [[Lebanon]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]) on numerous prior occasions, and its small geographic size and population could mean that, in the event of future wars, the [[Israel Defense Forces]] might have very little time to react to an invasion or other major threat. Such a situation could escalate to nuclear warfare very quickly in some scenarios.

On March 7, 2013, North Korea threatened the United States with a [[pre-emptive nuclear strike]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-attack-idUSBRE9260BR20130307|title=North Korea threatens nuclear strike, U.N. expands sanctions|work=Reuters|date=2013-03-07|access-date=2013-05-07}}</ref> On April 9, North Korea urged foreigners to leave [[South Korea]], stating that both countries were on the verge of nuclear war.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/north-korea-urges-foreigners-to-leave-south-korea-1.1314913|title=North Korea urges foreigners to leave South Korea|publisher=CBC|date=2013-04-09|access-date=2013-05-07}}</ref> On April 12, North Korea stated that a nuclear war was unavoidable. The country declared Japan as its first target.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.express.co.uk/news/world/391376/North-Korea-states-nuclear-war-is-unavoidable-as-it-declares-first-target-will-be-Japan|title=North Korea states 'nuclear war is unavoidable' as it declares first target will be Japan|publisher=Express|author=Meredith, Charlotte|date=2013-04-12|access-date=2013-05-07}}</ref>

In 2014, when [[Russia–United States relations|Russia-United States]] and [[Russia–NATO relations|Russia-NATO relations]] worsened over the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], the Russian state-owned television channel [[Russia 1]] stated that "Russia is the only country in the world that is really capable of turning the USA into radioactive ash."<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/ukraine-crisis-russia-kiselyov/russia-can-turn-us-to-radioactive-ash-kremlin-backed-journalist-idUSL6N0MD0P920140316| work= Reuters| date = 16 March 2014|title = Russia can turn US to radioactive ash - Kremlin-backed journalist|first =Lidia |last =Kelly}}</ref> U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Ash Carter]] considered proposing deployment of [[ground-launched cruise missile]]s in Europe that could pre-emptively destroy Russian weapons.<ref>"[http://www.dw.de/us-could-potential-deploy-missiles-in-europe-to-deter-russia/a-18497133 US could potential deploy missiles in Europe to deter Russia]". [[Deutsche Welle]]. June 5, 2015.</ref>

In August 2017, [[North Korea]] warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within {{convert|18|to|24|mi|km}} of [[Guam]], following an [[North Korea–United States relations#Trump administration (2017–2021)|exchange of threats]] between the governments of North Korea and the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Horton |first=Alex |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/08/09/why-north-korea-threatened-guam-the-tiny-u-s-territory-with-big-military-power/ |title=Why North Korea threatened Guam, the tiny U.S. territory with big military power |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=August 9, 2017  }}</ref><ref name=cnbc-20170810>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/10/north-koreas-missile-threat-to-guam-crafted-for-maximum-drama.html |title=North Korea's missile threat to Guam crafted for 'maximum drama,' says former CIA analyst |last=Daniels |first=Jeff |publisher=CNBC News |date=August 10, 2017 |access-date=August 11, 2017}}</ref> [[2017–18 North Korea crisis|Escalating tensions]] between North Korea and the United States, including threats by both countries that they could use nuclear weapons against one another, prompted a heightened state of readiness in [[Hawaii]]. The perceived ballistic missile threat broadcast all over Hawaii on 13 January 2018 was a [[2018 Hawaii false missile alert|false missile alarm]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/14/world/asia/hawaii-false-alarm-north-korea-nuclear.html|work=The New York Times|title=Hawaii False Alarm Hints at Thin Line Between Mishap and Nuclear War|first=Max|last=Fisher|date=January 14, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-hawaii-missile-alert-20180113-story.html|work=Los Angeles Times|title=False alert of missile attack sparks panic in Hawaii|date=January 13, 2018}}</ref>

In October 2018, the former Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] commented that U.S. withdrawal from the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] is "not the work of a great mind" and that "a new arms race has been announced".<ref>{{cite news |title=Gorbachev says Trump's nuclear treaty withdrawal 'not the work of a great mind' |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/22/gorbachev-says-trumps-nuclear-treaty-withdrawal-not-the-work-of-a-great-mind.html |last=Ellyatt |first=Holly |agency=CNBC |date=22 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehill.com/policy/defense/413383-trump-stokes-debate-about-new-cold-war-arms-race|title=Trump stokes debate about new Cold War arms race|first=Ian|last=Swanson|date=27 October 2018|website=The Hill}}</ref>

In early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.<ref>{{cite news |first=Kelsey |last=Reichmann |title=Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them |url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/ |work=[[Defense News]] |date=16 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Global Nuclear Arsenal Declines, But Future Cuts Uncertain Amid U.S.-Russia Tensions |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/nuclear-weapons-russia-start-inf-warheads/30003088.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=17 June 2019}}</ref>

In 2019, [[Vladimir Putin]] warned that Russia would deploy [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear missiles]] in Europe if the United States deployed [[Intermediate-range ballistic missile|intermediate-range nuclear missiles]] there. Journalist [[Dmitry Kiselyov]] listed the targets in the United States, which includes [[The Pentagon]], [[Camp David]], [[Fort Ritchie]], [[McClellan Air Force Base]], and [[Jim Creek Naval Radio Station]]. [[Kremlin Press Secretary|Kremlin spokesperson]] [[Dmitry Peskov]] denies the existence of the target list.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nuclear-russia/after-putins-warning-russian-tv-lists-nuclear-targets-in-u-s-idUSKCN1QE1DM| work= Reuters| date = 25 February 2019|title = After Putin's warning, Russian TV lists nuclear targets in U.S.|first = Andrew|last = Osborn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://tass.com/politics/1046259| work= TASS|title = Kremlin clarifies Putin never directly declared intention to aim missiles at US|date = 25 February 2019}}</ref>

On February 24, 2022, in a televised address preceding the start of Russia's [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|full-scale invasion of Ukraine]], Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] stated that Russia "is today one of the most powerful nuclear powers in the world... No one should have any doubts that a direct attack on our country will lead to defeat and dire consequences for any potential aggressor." Later in the same speech, Putin stated: "Now a few important, very important words for those who may be tempted to intervene in ongoing events. Whoever tries to hinder us, and even more so to create threats for our country, for our people, should know that Russia's response will be immediate and will lead you to such consequences that you have never experienced in your history."<ref>{{cite news |title=Defiant Putin goes to war in Ukraine with a warning for U.S., NATO |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/russia-ukraine-invasion-putin-war-warning-us-nato-rcna17497 |access-date=3 October 2022 |work=NBC News |date=24 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Full text: Putin's declaration of war on Ukraine|url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/full-text-putin-s-declaration-of-war-on-ukraine |access-date=3 October 2022 |work=www.spectator.co.uk |date=24 February 2022}}</ref> On February 27, 2022, Putin publicly put his nuclear forces on alert, stating that NATO powers had made "aggressive statements".<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin puts nuclear deterrent forces on 'high alert' amid spiraling tensions over Ukraine |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/putin-orders-nuclear-deterrent-forces-high-alert-tensions-build-ukrain-rcna17853 |access-date=3 October 2022 |work=NBC News |date=27 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> On April 14, ''The New York Times'' reported comments by CIA director [[William J. Burns (diplomat)|William Burns]], who said "potential desperation" could lead President Putin to order the use of [[tactical nuclear weapon]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. |last2=Barnes |first2=Julian E. |date=14 April 2022 |title=C.I.A. Director Airs Concern That Putin Might Turn to Nuclear Weapons |work=[[The New York Times]] |publication-place=Washington, D.C. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/14/us/politics/putin-nuclear-weapons.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414234618/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/14/us/politics/putin-nuclear-weapons.html |archive-date=14 April 2022}}</ref> On September 21, 2022, days before declaring the annexation of additional parts of Ukraine, Putin claimed in a national television address that high NATO officials had made statements about the possibility of "using nuclear weapons of mass destruction against Russia", and stated "if the territorial integrity of our country is threatened, we will certainly use all the means at our disposal to protect Russia and our people... It's not a bluff." [[NBC News]] characterized Putin's statements as a "thinly veiled" threat that Putin was willing to risk nuclear conflict if necessary to win the war with Ukraine.<ref>{{cite news |title=Here's how seriously the West should take Putin's latest nuclear threats |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/nuclear-threat-putin-ukraine-war-bluffing-rcna48713 |access-date=3 October 2022 |work=NBC News |date=22 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> [[Hans M. Kristensen]], director of the Nuclear Information Project at the [[Federation of American Scientists]], stated that "if you start detonating nuclear weapons in the [battlefield] you potentially get [[radioactive fallout]] that you can't control — it could rain over your own troops as well, so it might not be an advantage to do that in the field."<ref>{{cite news |title=Nuclear weapons expert says we should be 'extraordinarily concerned' about Putin nuking Ukraine |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/expert-extraordinarily-concerned-russia-could-use-nuclear-weapons-2022-9 |work=Business Insider |date=30 September 2022 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002181053/https://www.businessinsider.com/expert-extraordinarily-concerned-russia-could-use-nuclear-weapons-2022-9 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal ''[[Nature Food]]'' in August 2022,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection |journal=[[Nature Food]] |date=15 August 2022 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0 |last1=Xia |first1=Lili |last2=Robock |first2=Alan |last3=Scherrer |first3=Kim |last4=Harrison |first4=Cheryl S. |last5=Bodirsky |first5=Benjamin Leon |last6=Weindl |first6=Isabelle |last7=Jägermeyr |first7=Jonas |last8=Bardeen |first8=Charles G. |last9=Toon |first9=Owen B. |last10=Heneghan |first10=Ryan |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=586–596 |pmid=37118594 |s2cid=251601831 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022NatFd...3..586X |hdl=11250/3039288 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would kill 360 million people directly, with a further 5 billion people dying from [[starvation]]. More than 2 billion people would die from a smaller-scale nuclear war between India and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Diaz-Maurin |first1=François |title=Nowhere to hide: How a nuclear war would kill you — and almost everyone else |url=https://thebulletin.org/2022/10/nowhere-to-hide-how-a-nuclear-war-would-kill-you-and-almost-everyone-else/ |work=[[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]] |date=20 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=World Nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would kill more than 5 billion people – just from starvation, study finds |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/nuclear-war-5-billion-people-starvation-deaths-study/ |work=CBS News |date=16 August 2022}}</ref>