Editing Muammar Gaddafi (section)

==Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya==

===Foundation: 1977===

On 2 March 1977, the General People's Congress adopted the "[[Declaration on the Establishment of the Authority of the People]]" at Gaddafi's behest. Dissolving the Libyan Arab Republic, it was replaced by the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ({{langx|ar|الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Jamāhīrīyah al-‘Arabīyah al-Lībīyah ash-Sha‘bīyah al-Ishtirākīyah}})'', a "state of the masses" conceptualized by Gaddafi.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=154–155|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=105|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=26–27|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=166–168}} A new, all-green banner was adopted as the country's flag.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=155}} Officially, the ''Jamahiriya'' was a [[direct democracy]] in which the people ruled themselves through the 187 [[Basic People's Congress (political)|Basic People's Congress]]es (BPCs), where all adult Libyans participated and voted on national decisions. These then sent members to the annual General People's Congress, which was broadcast live on television. In principle, the People's Congresses were Libya's highest authority, with major decisions proposed by government officials or with Gaddafi himself requiring the consent of the People's Congresses.{{sfnm|1a1=El-Khawas|1y=1984|1p=27|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=29|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3pp=166–168|4a1=Vandewalle|4y=2008b|4pp=19–20}} Gaddafi became General Secretary of the GPC, although he stepped down from this position in early 1979 and appointed himself "Leader of the Revolution".{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=13}}

[[File:Flag of Libya (1977-2011).svg|thumb|left|[[Flag of Libya]] (1977–2011)]]

Although all political control was officially vested in the People's Congresses, in reality Libya's existing political leadership continued to exercise varying degrees of power and influence.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=155}} Debate remained limited, and major decisions regarding the economy and defence were avoided or dealt with cursorily; the GPC largely remained "a rubber stamp" for Gaddafi's policies.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=29}} On rare occasions, the GPC opposed Gaddafi's suggestions, sometimes successfully; notably, when Gaddafi called on primary schools to be abolished, believing that [[home schooling|homeschooling]] was healthier for children, the GPC rejected the idea.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=29}} In other instances, Gaddafi pushed through laws without the GPC's support, such as when he desired to allow women into the armed forces.{{sfn|Harris|1986|pp=67–68}} At other times, he ordered snap elections when it appeared that the GPC would enact laws he opposed.{{sfn|St. John|1987|pp=133–134}} Gaddafi proclaimed that the People's Congresses provided for Libya's every political need, rendering other political organizations unnecessary; all non-authorized groups, including political parties, professional associations, independent trade unions, and women's groups, were banned.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=27|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=166–168}} Despite these restrictions, St. John noted that the ''Jamahiriya'' system still "introduced a level of representation and participation hitherto unknown in Libya".{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=134}}

With preceding legal institutions abolished, Gaddafi envisioned the ''Jamahiriya'' as following the [[Qur'an]] for legal guidance, adopting ''sharia'' law; he proclaimed "man-made" laws unnatural and dictatorial, only permitting [[God in Islam|Allah]]'s law.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1pp=27–28|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=167}} Within a year he was backtracking, announcing that ''sharia'' was inappropriate for the ''Jamahiriya'' because it guaranteed the protection of private property, contravening ''The Green Book''{{'s}} socialism.{{sfn|Vandewalle|2008b|p=28}} His emphasis on placing his own work on a par with the Qur'an led conservative clerics to accuse him of ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'', furthering their opposition to his regime.{{sfn|Harris|1986|p=50}} In July 1977, a [[Egyptian–Libyan War|border war broke out]] with Egypt, in which the Egyptians defeated Libya despite their technological inferiority. The conflict lasted one week before both sides agreed to sign a peace treaty that was brokered by several Arab states.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=170–171|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=105|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=35|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=67–68|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=183}} Both Egypt and Sudan had aligned themselves with the US, and this pushed Libya into a strategic, although not political, alignment with the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=168}} In recognition of the growing commercial relationship between Libya and the Soviets, Gaddafi was invited to visit Moscow in December 1976; there, he entered talks with [[Leonid Brezhnev]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=169|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=76|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=180}} In August 1977, he visited [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], where he met its leader [[Josip Broz Tito]], with whom he had a much warmer relationship.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=169}} He also enjoyed a warm relationship with [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]]n leader [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]]. According to Romanian spy chief [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]], Gaddafi once exclaimed to Ceaușescu, "My brother! You are my brother for the rest of my life!"<ref>Muammar Gaddafi, as quoted in {{cite book |author-link=Ion Mihai Pacepa |first=Ion Mihai |last=Pacepa |year=1987 |title=Red Horizons: Chronicles of a Communist Spy Chief |publisher=Regnery Gateway |page=101 |isbn=9780895265708 }}</ref> After Pacepa defected to the US in July 1978, Gaddafi and [[Yasser Arafat]] contributed $1 million each to Ceaușescu's $4 million bounty on Pacepa.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Obituaries |first=Telegraph |date=25 February 2021 |title=Ion Mihai Pacepa, Romanian spy and star defector who revealed the sordid reality of the Ceausescus and their regime – obituary |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/obituaries/2021/02/25/ion-mihai-pacepa-romanian-spy-star-defector-revealed-sordid/ |access-date=11 February 2023 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211132556/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/obituaries/2021/02/25/ion-mihai-pacepa-romanian-spy-star-defector-revealed-sordid/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Revolutionary Committees and furthering socialism: 1978–1980===

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=If socialism is defined as a redistribution of wealth and resources, a socialist revolution clearly occurred in Libya after 1969 and most especially in the second half of the 1970s. The management of the economy was increasingly socialist in intent and effect with wealth in housing, capital and land significantly redistributed or in the process of redistribution. Private enterprise was virtually eliminated, largely replaced by a centrally controlled economy.|salign = right |source=—Libyan Studies scholar [[Ronald Bruce St. John]]{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=173}}}}

In December 1978, Gaddafi stepped down as Secretary-General of the GPC, announcing his new focus on revolutionary rather than government activities; this was part of his new emphasis on separating the apparatus of the revolution from government. Although no longer in a formal government post, he adopted the title of "Leader of the Revolution" and continued as commander-in-chief of the armed forces.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=26|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=3|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=169}} Historian Dirk Vandewalle stated that despite the Jamahariya's claims to being a direct democracy, Libya remained "an exclusionary political system whose decision-making process" was "restricted to a small cadre of advisers and confidantes" surrounding Gaddafi.{{sfn|Vandewalle|2006|p=6}}

Libya turned towards socialism. In March 1978, the government issued guidelines for housing redistribution, attempting to ensure every adult owned their own home. Most families were banned from owning more than one house, while former rental properties were expropriated by the state and sold to the tenants at a heavily subsidized price.{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=1983|1p=484|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=111|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=221|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=171–172}} In September, Gaddafi called for the People's Committees to eliminate the "bureaucracy of the public sector" and the "dictatorship of the private sector"; the People's Committees took control of several hundred companies, converting them into [[worker cooperative]]s run by elected representatives.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=191|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=110–111|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=168}}

In March 1979, the GPC announced the separation of government and revolution, the latter being represented by new Revolutionary Committees, who operated with the People's Committees in schools, universities, unions, the police force, and the military.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=116–117, 127|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2pp=25–26|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=31|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=169–171}} Dominated by revolutionary zealots, mostly youths, the Revolutionary Committees were based in Tripoli and met with Gaddafi annually.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=187–189|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=116–117, 127|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3pp=25–26|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=31|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5pp=169–171}} Membership was drawn from within the BPCs.{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=134}} The revolutionary committee system became "a key—if not the main—mechanism through which [Gaddafi] exercises political control in Libya".{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=189}} Publishing a weekly magazine, ''The Green March'', starting October 1980 they took control of the press.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=116–117, 127|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2pp=25–26|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=31|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=169–171}} Responsible for perpetuating the revolution, they performed ideological surveillance, adopting a significant security role, making arrests and putting people on trial according to the "law of the revolution".{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=189|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=116–117, 127|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3pp=25–26|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=31|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5pp=169–171}} With no legal or safeguards, the administration of revolutionary justice was largely arbitrary and resulted in widespread abuse and the suppression of [[civil liberties]]: the "Green Terror".{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=117|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=28|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=174}}

In 1979, the committees began the redistribution of land in the [[Jafara|Jefara]] plain, continuing through 1981.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=275|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=172}} In May 1980, measures to redistribute and equalize wealth were implemented; anyone with over 1000 [[Libyan dinar|dinar]] in their bank account saw that extra money expropriated.{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=1983|1p=484|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=128|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=221|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=172}} The following year, the GPC announced that the government would take control of all import, export and distribution functions, with state supermarkets replacing privately owned businesses; this led to a decline in the availability of consumer goods and the development of a thriving [[black market]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=195|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=28|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=21|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=220|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=172}} Gaddafi was frustrated by the slow pace of social reform on women's issues, and in 1979 launched a Revolutionary Women's Formation, to replace the more gradualist Libyan General Women's Federation.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=199}} In 1978 he had established a Women's Military Academy in Tripoli, encouraging all women to enlist for training.{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=241}} The measure was hugely controversial and voted down by the GPC in February 1983. Gaddafi remained adamant, and when it was again voted down by the GPC in March 1984, he refused to abide by the decision, declaring that "he who opposes the training and emancipation of women is an agent of imperialism, whether he likes it or not."{{sfn|Bearman|1986|pp=241–243}}

The Jamahiriya's radical direction earned the government many enemies. Most internal opposition came from [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalists]], inspired by the events of the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution]].{{sfn|Bearman|1986|p=246}} In February 1978, Gaddafi discovered that his head of military intelligence was plotting to kill him and increasingly entrusted security to his Qadhadfa tribe.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=127–128|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=19}} Many who had seen their wealth confiscated turned against the administration, and Western-funded opposition groups were founded by exiles. Most prominent was the [[National Front for the Salvation of Libya]] (NFSL), which orchestrated militant attacks against Libya's government.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=247–248|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=79|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=32|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=173–174}} Another, al-Borkan, began killing Libyan diplomats abroad.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=248–249|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=79|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3p=156}} Following Gaddafi's command to kill these "stray dogs", the Revolutionary Committees set up overseas branches to suppress counter-revolutionary activity, assassinating dissidents.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=246|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=133–137|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=27|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=171}} Although Syria and Israel also employed hit squads, Gaddafi was unusual in publicly bragging about his use of them;{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=138}} in April 1980, he ordered all dissidents to return home by 10 June or be "liquidated wherever you are".{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=246|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=138}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=What ever happened to the Libyan hit squad? - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/10/20/What-ever-happened-to-the-Libyan-hit-squad/9598403934400/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=UPI |language=en |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812000445/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/10/20/What-ever-happened-to-the-Libyan-hit-squad/9598403934400/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Within a three months period in 1980, at least ten Libyan dissidents were murdered in Europe, including ex-diplomats, ex-army officers, businessmen, journalists, and student activists in disparate locations such as [[London]], [[Greece]] and [[Austria]]. At least eleven more were assassinated in 1981.<ref>{{Cite web |title="No One Is Safe": Hunting the Libyan Hit Squads of the 1980s |url=https://www.insidehook.com/article/military/no-one-safe-hunting-libyan-hit-squads-1980s |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=InsideHook |language=en-US |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207181244/https://www.insidehook.com/article/military/no-one-safe-hunting-libyan-hit-squads-1980s |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1984, Gaddafi was tricked by Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]] into announcing the assassination of former Libyan Prime Minister [[Abdul Hamid al-Bakkoush]] in Cairo; Bakkhoush not only turned up alive but held a press conference with Egypt's Interior Minister.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=18 November 1984 |title=CAIRO FAKES PICTURES AND FOILS LIBYAN DEATH PLOT |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/18/world/cairo-fakes-pictures-and-foils-libyan-death-plot.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=15 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615195626/https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/18/world/cairo-fakes-pictures-and-foils-libyan-death-plot.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Murphy |first=Jamie |date=3 December 1984 |title=Libya: The Doublecross and the Hit Hoax |language=en-US |magazine=Time |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,923758,00.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0040-781X |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207100957/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,923758,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1979, Gaddafi created the [[Islamic Legion]], through which several thousand Africans were military trained.{{sfn|St. John|2008|p=95}}

Libya had sought to improve US relations under President [[Jimmy Carter]], for instance by courting his brother, businessman [[Billy Carter]], and paying for the services of former CIA officers,{{sfn|Bearman|1986|pp=227–228}}<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Tyler |first1=Patrick E. |last2=Kamen |first2=Al |date=10 September 1981 |title=Relationship With CIA Aide Gave Credibility to Arms Seller |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1981/09/10/relationship-with-cia-aide-gave-credibility-to-arms-seller/904d8987-e2ea-4027-85cc-410f5583a478/ |access-date=2 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=22 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222231410/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1981/09/10/relationship-with-cia-aide-gave-credibility-to-arms-seller/904d8987-e2ea-4027-85cc-410f5583a478/ |url-status=live }}</ref> but in 1979 the US placed Libya on its list of "[[State Sponsors of Terrorism]]".{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=179}} Relations were further damaged when a [[1979 U.S. embassy burning in Libya|demonstration torched the US embassy]] in solidarity with the perpetrators of the [[Iran hostage crisis]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=228|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3pp=197–198|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=115|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=179}} Libyan fighters began intercepting US fighter jets flying over the Mediterranean, signalling the collapse of relations between the countries.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=179}} Italian media have alleged that the [[Itavia Flight 870]] was shot down during a [[dogfight]] involving [[Libyan Air Force|Libyan]], [[United States Air Force|United States]], [[French Air Force|French]] and [[Italian Air Force]] fighters in an assassination attempt by [[NATO]] members on a Libyan politician, perhaps even Gaddafi, flying in the same airspace.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Italy's Darkest Night |author=Thomas Van Hare |journal=Historic Wings |date=27 June 2012 |url=http://fly.historicwings.com/2012/06/italys-darkest-night/ |access-date=15 January 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425142000/http://fly.historicwings.com/2012/06/italys-darkest-night/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,,1825348,00.html The Mystery of Flight 870] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180311/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jul/21/worlddispatch.italy |date=7 March 2023 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 21 July 2006</ref>

Libyan relations with Lebanon and [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]] communities deteriorated due to the 1978 disappearance of Imam [[Musa al-Sadr]] when visiting Libya; the Lebanese accused Gaddafi of having him killed or imprisoned, a charge he denied.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=157–158|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=41|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=70–71|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=239}} Relations with Pakistan broke down in this period. Despite Gaddafi's repeated appeals to [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] to spare [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]]'s life, Bhutto was executed in 1979.<ref name="Congress Publications">{{cite journal |last=Tirmizie |first=Brigadier General I.A. |title=The Profile of Intelligence: Libyans |journal=Brigadier General I.A. Tirmiz, Former Officer of Joint Technical Bureau |publisher=Congress Publications}}</ref> In retaliation and for Zia's refusal to share Pakistan's nuclear technology, Gaddafi began training [[Al-Zulfikar]], an anti-Zia insurgency led by Bhutto's sons [[Murtaza Bhutto|Murtaza]] and [[Shahnawaz Bhutto|Shahnawaz]], expelled all 150,000 Pakistanis living in Libya, and provided asylum for the [[Bhutto family]].<ref name="THe News International2">{{cite news |last=Nazar Abbas |date=26 August 2011 |title=Gaddafi is gone, long live Libya |newspaper=THe News International |url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-2-64753-Gaddafi-is-gone-long-live-Libya |url-status=dead |access-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809005813/http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-2-64753-Gaddafi-is-gone-long-live-Libya |archive-date=9 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="Peoples' Relation">{{cite web |author=Shahid Amin |date=26 July 2011 |title=Pakistan - Libya Relations |url=http://www.p2prelations.com/files/reports/PKLibya.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109025718/http://www.p2prelations.com/files/reports/PKLibya.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2013 |access-date=9 August 2013 |publisher=Peoples' Relation}}</ref><ref name="Congress Publications" /> Relations with Syria improved, as Gaddafi and Syrian President [[Hafez al-Assad]] shared an enmity with Israel and Egypt's Sadat. In 1980, they proposed a political union, with Libya promising to pay off Syria's £1-billion debt to the Soviet Union; although pressures led Assad to pull out, they remained allies.{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=1987|1pp=61–62|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=68–69}} Another key ally was Uganda, and in 1979, during the [[Uganda–Tanzania War]], Gaddafi sent 2,500 troops to [[Foreign support of Uganda in the Uganda–Tanzania War#Libya|defend]] President [[Idi Amin]] from Tanzanian invaders. The mission failed; 400 Libyans were killed, and Libya was forced to retreat.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=112|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=185–186|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=78–79|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=189}} Gaddafi came to regret his alliance with Amin, openly criticizing him as a "[[fascism|fascist]]" and a "show-off".{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=112–13|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=105}}

===Conflict with the US and its allies: 1981–1986===

The early 80s saw economic trouble in Libya; from 1982 to 1986, annual oil revenues dropped from $21 to $5.4 billion.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=31|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=23|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=104|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=192}} Focusing on irrigation projects, 1983 saw construction start on Libya's largest and most expensive infrastructure project, the [[Great Man-Made River]]; although designed to be finished by the end of the decade, it remained incomplete at the start of the 21st century.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=274|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=119|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=224|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=249}} Military spending increased, while other administrative budgets were cut.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=116|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=35}} Foreign debt rose,{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=121}} and austerity measures were introduced to promote self-reliance; in 1985 there was a mass deportation of foreign workers, mostly Egyptian and Tunisian.{{sfn|St. John|1987|p=122}} Domestic threats continued to plague Gaddafi; in May 1984, his [[Bab al-Azizia]] home was unsuccessfully attacked by a militia—linked to the NFSL or Muslim Brotherhood—and in the aftermath 5,000 dissidents were arrested.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=250|2a1=Harris|2y=1986|2p=70|3a1=Blundy|3a2=Lycett|3y=1987|3p=178}} In spring 1985, members of the military tried to assassinate Gaddafi twice. The first was a plot by conservative officers to assassinate him at a villa on the outskirts of Tripoli; the second was an assault on his convoy.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Judith |last2=Times |first2=Special To the New York |date=14 January 1986 |title=LIBYAN MILITARY TERMED RESTIVE UNDER QADDAFI |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/14/world/libyan-military-termed-restive-under-qaddafi.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207073945/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/14/world/libyan-military-termed-restive-under-qaddafi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 1985, Colonel Hassan Ishkal, the third most powerful man in Libya, head of the military region of Sirte, died in a suspicious car accident. Ishkal's death was attributed to [[Abdessalam Jalloud|Jalloud]], Khalifa Hunaysh or Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dickey |first=Christopher |date=27 April 1986 |title=Libya Seen Weighing Government Changes |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/27/libya-seen-weighing-government-changes/ea0e1531-ff48-4bd0-a43b-05754c56290c/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cousins |first=Michel |date=19 March 2012 |title=Qaddafi aide Khalifa Hunaysh dies from cancer in hospital in Munich. |url=https://www.libyaherald.com/2012/03/qaddafi-aide-khalifa-hunaysh-dies-from-cancer-in-hospital-in-munich/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=LibyaHerald |language=en-US |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207073950/https://www.libyaherald.com/2012/03/qaddafi-aide-khalifa-hunaysh-dies-from-cancer-in-hospital-in-munich/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wallace |first=Charles P. |date=17 January 1986 |title=Food Scarce, Shops Shuttered : Libya Today Far Cry From Kadafi's Utopian Vision |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-17-mn-811-story.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207073951/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-01-17-mn-811-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:MMR 13.jpg|thumb|left|Construction for the Great Man-Made River Project]]

Libya had long supported the [[FROLINAT]] militia in neighbouring Chad, but FROLINAT became divided over its ties to Libya in 1976. In January 1978, the anti-Libya faction within FROLINAT, led by [[Hissène Habré]], switched sides and allied with Chadian President [[Félix Malloum]].<ref>A. Gérard, ''Nimeiry face aux crises tchadiennes'', p. 119</ref><ref name="BuijtenhuijsA19">R. Buijtenhuijs, "Le FROLINAT à l'épreuve du pouvoir", p. 19</ref> Meanwhile, the pro-Libya faction within FROLINAT, led by [[Goukouni Oueddei]], renamed itself [[People's Armed Forces]] (FAP). In December 1980, Gaddafi reinvaded Chad at the request of the FAP-controlled [[Transitional Government of National Unity (Chad)|GUNT government]] to aid in the civil war; in January 1981, Gaddafi suggested a political merger. The [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU) rejected this and called for a Libyan withdrawal, which came in November 1981. The civil war resumed, and Libya sent troops back in.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=211–222|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=187–190|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=35|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=189–190}}

In 1982, the GUNT government was overthrown by Habré's forces and Oueddei fled to Libya, where Gaddafi provided him with arms to continue to guerrilla war against Habré.<ref name="Habre">James Brooke, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE2D71F3FF93BA2575BC0A961948260 "Habre Policy in Chad: Name Ex-Foes to Key Posts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413021354/https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE2D71F3FF93BA2575BC0A961948260 |date=13 April 2020 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 18 August 1987.</ref> In November 1984, Gaddafi met with French President [[François Mitterrand]]; both agreed to withdraw from Chad.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Mitterrand meets Qaddafi even as some say Libya still in Chad |work=Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1984/1116/111631.html |access-date=3 February 2023 |issn=0882-7729 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203075529/https://www.csmonitor.com/1984/1116/111631.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Oueddei broke with Gaddafi in 1985 due to the former's intentions to negotiate a truce with Habré. Consequently, he was placed under house arrest by Gaddafi and allegedly arrested by Libyan police and shot in the stomach.<ref name="Habre" /><ref>James Brooke, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D81231F932A35757C0A961948260 "Chad said to win vast Libyan booty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180254/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/01/world/chad-said-to-win-vast-libyan-booty.html |date=7 March 2023 }}, ''The New York Times'', 1 April 1987.</ref> Oueddei survived the shooting and fled to Algeria, but continued to claim he and Gaddafi enjoyed a good relationship. When Gaddafi ordered the remnant of GUNT to attack Habré in February 1986 in violation of his agreement with Mitterrand, France launched [[Operation Épervier]], which escalated into the [[Toyota War]]. Libya suffered a humiliating defeat as it was completely expelled from Chad and its commander [[Khalifa Haftar]] captured, along with 600-700 Libyan soldiers. Gaddafi disavowed Haftar and the other prisoners; one possible contributing factor to this repudiation may have been that Gaddafi had signed an agreement to withdraw Libyan forces, and Haftar's operations had been in violation of this.<ref>M. Brecher & J. Wilkenfeld, ''A Study of Crisis'', p. 92</ref><ref name="bi-201404222">{{cite news |author=Russ Baker |date=22 April 2014 |title=Is General Khalifa Hifter The CIA's Man in Libya? |work=[[Business Insider]] |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-cias-man-in-libya-2011-4 |url-status=live |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827222052/http://www.businessinsider.com/the-cias-man-in-libya-2011-4 |archive-date=27 August 2014}}</ref> An embittered Haftar then joined the anti-Gaddafi [[National Front for the Salvation of Libya]], became a CIA asset, and was given refuge in the US.<ref name="Anderson">{{cite news |last1=Anderson |first1=Jon Lee |date=23 February 2015 |title=The Unravelling: Libya's New Strongman |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/unravelling |url-status=live |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315053552/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/unravelling |archive-date=15 March 2015}}</ref>

Many African nations were tired of Libya's interference in their affairs; by 1980, nine African states had severed diplomatic relations,{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=1987|1p=101|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=189}} while in 1982 the OAU cancelled its scheduled conference in Tripoli to prevent Gaddafi gaining chairmanship.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=103|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=102|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=81|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=190–191}} Some African states, such as [[Jerry Rawlings]]'s Ghana and [[Thomas Sankara]]'s Burkina Faso, had warm relations with Libya during the 1980s.{{sfn|Haynes|1990|p=62}}

Proposing political unity with Morocco, in August 1984, Gaddafi and Moroccan monarch [[Hassan II of Morocco|Hassan II]] signed the [[Oujda Treaty]], forming the Arab–African Union; such a union was considered surprising due to the political differences and longstanding enmity that existed between the two. In a sign of warming relations, Gaddafi promised to stop funding the [[Polisario Front]] and Hassan II extradited former RCC member [[Umar Muhayshi]] to Libya, where he was immediately killed.<ref name=":0" /> But relations deteriorated, particularly due to Morocco's friendship with the US and Israel; in August 1986, Hassan abolished the union.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=261–262|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=214|3a1=St. John|3y=1987|3pp=66–67|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=72–75|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=216}} Angered by the snub, Gaddafi plotted with [[Abu Nidal]] to assassinate Hassan in 1987, but the plot was aborted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Morocco-Libya: Gaddafi Plotted to Assassinate Hassan II, CIA Reveals – The North Africa Post |url=https://northafricapost.com/16081-morocco-libya-gaddafi-plotted-assassinate-hassan-ii-cia-reveals.html |access-date=2 February 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202021511/https://northafricapost.com/16081-morocco-libya-gaddafi-plotted-assassinate-hassan-ii-cia-reveals.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yabiladi.com |title=1987, when Muammar Gaddafi was planning to assassinate King Hassan II |url=https://en.yabiladi.com/articles/details/58568/1987-when-muammar-gaddafi-planning.html |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=en.yabiladi.com |language=en |archive-date=9 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309230712/https://en.yabiladi.com/articles/details/58568/1987-when-muammar-gaddafi-planning.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1981, the new US president, [[Ronald Reagan]], pursued a hardline approach to Libya, viewing it as a [[puppet regime]] of the Soviet Union.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=228–229|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=81|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=115–116, 120|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=179–180}} Gaddafi played up his commercial relationship with the Soviets, revisiting Moscow in 1981 and 1985,{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1pp=98–99|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2pp=71, 78|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=115|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=210–211}} and threatening to join the [[Warsaw Pact]].{{sfn|St. John|2008|p=96}} The Soviets were nevertheless cautious of Gaddafi, seeing him as an unpredictable extremist.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=97|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=183|3a1=St. John|3y=1987|3pp=77–78}} In August 1981, the US staged military exercises in the Gulf of Sirte – an area which Libya claimed. The US [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)|shot down]] two Libyan [[Sukhoi Su-17|Su-22]] planes which were on an intercept course.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=230–231|2a1=St. John|2y=1987|2p=84|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=36|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=118–119}} Closing down Libya's embassy in Washington, Reagan advised US companies operating in Libya to reduce Americans stationed there.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=37|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=117–118|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=180}} In December 1981, the [[White House]] claimed Gaddafi had dispatched a hit squad to assassinate Reagan, allegedly led by [[Carlos the Jackal]], who had been living in Libya under Gaddafi's protection after the 1975 [[OPEC siege]]. Secretary of State [[Alexander Haig]], Defense Secretary [[Caspar Weinberger]], Counselor to the President [[Edwin Meese]], chief of staff [[James Baker]], and deputy chief of staff [[Michael Deaver]] were considered potential targets and given special security. US ambassador to Italy [[Maxwell M. Rabb]], who was Jewish, was urgently recalled due to threats against his life. Gaddafi denied the allegations.<ref name=":5" /> Gaddafi was accused of having ties to the [[Lebanese Armed Revolutionary Factions]], which had murdered US [[military attaché]] [[Charles R. Ray]] and Israeli diplomat [[Killing of Yacov Barsimantov|Yacov Barsimantov]] in Paris.<ref name=":5" /> In March 1982, the US implemented an embargo of Libyan oil,{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=231|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=207–208|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=37|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4pp=117-18|5a1=St. John|5y=2012|5p=181}} and in January 1986 ordered all US companies to cease operating in the country, although several hundred workers remained when the Libyan government doubled their pay.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=294|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=27, 208|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=117–118|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=176}} In spring 1986, [[Action in the Gulf of Sidra (1986)|the US Navy again performed exercises in the Gulf of Sirte]]; the Libyan military retaliated, but failed as the US sank Libyan ships.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1pp=294–295|2a1=Boyd-Judson|2y=2005|2p=79|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=121–122}} Diplomatic relations also broke down with the UK, after Libyan diplomats were accused in the killing of [[Yvonne Fletcher]], a British policewoman stationed outside their London embassy, in April 1984.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=250|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=175–178|3a1=Vandewalle|3y=2008b|3p=37|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=209}}

In 1980, Gaddafi hired former CIA agent [[Edwin P. Wilson]], living in Libya as a fugitive from US justice, to plot the murder of an anti-Gaddafi Libyan graduate student at [[Colorado State University]] named Faisal Zagallai. Zagallai was shot in the head in October 1980, in [[Fort Collins, Colorado]] by a former [[Green Berets|Green Beret]] and associate of Wilson named Eugene Tafoya.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Marmaduke |first=Jacy |title=Uncover the mystery of a notorious Fort Collins shooting |url=https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/12/08/uncover-mystery-notorious-fort-collins-shooting/95041498/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Fort Collins Coloradoan |language=en-US |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180316/https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2016/12/08/uncover-mystery-notorious-fort-collins-shooting/95041498/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Zagallai survived the attack and Tafoya was convicted of third-degree assault and conspiracy to commit assault.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Upi |date=26 November 1981 |title=DEFENDANT DESCRIBES SHOOTING OF LIBYAN |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/26/us/defendant-describes-shooting-of-libyan.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=7 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207181243/https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/26/us/defendant-describes-shooting-of-libyan.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Wilson was lured back to the US and sentenced to 32 years due to his ties to Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Philip |date=14 March 1983 |title=It's 2 Convictions, 32 Years, And More Trials for Wilson |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/03/14/its-2-convictions-32-years-and-more-trials-for-wilson/7d9a63c5-27f7-440d-be04-abddd5b855af/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=28 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828080537/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/03/14/its-2-convictions-32-years-and-more-trials-for-wilson/7d9a63c5-27f7-440d-be04-abddd5b855af/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1984, Gaddafi publicly [[Execution of Al-Sadek Hamed Al-Shuwehdy|executed Al-Sadek Hamed Al-Shuwehdy]], an aeronautical engineer studying in the US.

After the US accused Libya of orchestrating the [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing]], in which two US soldiers died, Reagan decided to retaliate.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=287|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=4–5|3a1=Boyd-Judson|3y=2005|3p=79|4a1=Kawczynski|4y=2011|4p=122}} The CIA was critical of the move, believing Syria was a greater threat and that an attack would strengthen Gaddafi's reputation; however, Libya was recognized as a "soft target".{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|pp=5–6}} Reagan was supported by the UK, but opposed by other European allies, who argued it contravened international law.{{sfnm|1a1=Harris|1y=1986|1p=102|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=123–125}} In [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|Operation El Dorado Canyon]], orchestrated on 15 April 1986, US military planes launched air-strikes, bombing military installations, killing around 100 Libyans, including civilians. One target had been Gaddafi's home. Himself unharmed, two of Gaddafi's sons were injured, and he claimed his adopted daughter [[Hana Gaddafi|Hanna]] was killed, although her existence has since been questioned.{{sfnm|1a1=Bearman|1y=1986|1p=287|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2pp=2–3, 7–12|3a1=Boyd-Judson|3y=2005|3pp=79–80|4a1=Vandewalle|4y=2008b|4p=37|5a1=Kawczynski|5y=2011|5pp=127–129}} Gaddafi retreated to the desert to meditate.{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1pp=13, 210|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=130}} There were sporadic clashes between Gaddafists and army officers who wanted to overthrow the government.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=12}} Although the US was condemned internationally, Reagan received a popularity boost at home.{{sfnm|1a1=Boyd-Judson|1y=2005|1p=80|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=130}} Publicly lambasting US imperialism, Gaddafi's reputation as an anti-imperialist was strengthened domestically and across the Arab world,{{sfnm|1a1=Blundy|1a2=Lycett|1y=1987|1p=15|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=196}} and, in June 1986, he ordered the names of the months to be changed in Libya.{{sfn|Blundy|Lycett|1987|p=30}}

==="Revolution within a Revolution": 1987–1998===
The late 1980s saw a series of liberalizing economic reforms within Libya designed to cope with the decline in oil revenues. In May 1987, Gaddafi announced the start of the "Revolution within a Revolution", which began with reforms to industry and agriculture and saw the re-opening of small business.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=225|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=194}} Restrictions were placed on the activities of the Revolutionary Committees; in March 1988, their role was narrowed by the newly created Ministry for Mass Mobilization and Revolutionary Leadership to restrict their violence and judicial role, while in August 1988 Gaddafi publicly criticized them.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=29|2a1=St. John|2y=2008|2p=97|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3pp=194–195, 199–200}}
In March, hundreds of political prisoners were freed, with Gaddafi falsely claiming that there were no further political prisoners in Libya.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=45|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=222}} In June, Libya's government issued the Great Green Charter on Human Rights in the Era of the Masses, in which 27 articles laid out goals, rights, and guarantees to improve the situation of human rights in Libya, restricting the use of the death penalty and calling for its eventual abolition. Many of the measures suggested in the charter would be implemented the following year, although others remained inactive.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1pp=45–46|2a1=St. John|2y=2008|2pp=97–98|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3pp=197–198}} Also in 1989, the government founded the [[Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights]], to be awarded to figures from the Third World who had struggled against colonialism and imperialism; the first year's winner was South African anti-apartheid activist [[Nelson Mandela]].{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=199}} From 1994 through to 1997, the government initiated cleansing committees to root out corruption, particularly in the economic sector.{{sfn|St. John|2012|pp=197–198}}

In the aftermath of the 1986 US attack, the army was purged of perceived disloyal elements,{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|p=130}} and in 1988, Gaddafi announced the creation of a popular militia to replace the army and police.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008b|1p=38|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=200}} In 1987, [[Libya and weapons of mass destruction|Libya began production]] of [[mustard gas]] at a facility in Rabta, although publicly denied it was stockpiling chemical weapons,{{sfn|St. John|2012|pp=201–204}} and unsuccessfully attempted to develop nuclear weapons.{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|pp=180–181}} The period also saw a growth in domestic Islamist opposition, formulated into groups like the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and the [[Libyan Islamic Fighting Group]]. Several assassination attempts against Gaddafi were foiled, and in turn, 1989 saw the security forces raid mosques believed to be centres of counter-revolutionary preaching.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1pp=166–167, 236|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=221–222}} In December 1993, former Libyan foreign minister [[Mansour Rashid El-Kikhia]], a leader of an anti-Gaddafi coalition in exile, was abducted in Cairo.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Murphy |first=Caryle |date=14 December 1993 |title=LIBYAN DISSIDENT MISSING IN CAIRO, FEARED ABDUCTED |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/12/14/libyan-dissident-missing-in-cairo-feared-abducted/26f15e62-a27b-4c7e-bba8-f1f664818454/ |access-date=12 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> His body was not found until 2012 in a morgue that belonged to Gaddafi's intelligence chief [[Abdullah Senussi]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2012 |title=Prominent Gaddafi opponent buried after 19 years |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-12-02/prominent-gaddafi-opponent-gets-burial-after-19-years/4403740 |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305003730/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-12-02/prominent-gaddafi-opponent-gets-burial-after-19-years/4403740 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In October 1993, elements of the increasingly marginalized army, led by officers from the powerful [[Warfalla]] tribe, initiated a failed [[1993 Libyan coup d'état attempt|coup]] in [[Misrata]] and [[Bani Walid]] allegedly with help from the [[National Front for the Salvation of Libya]], [[Khalifa Haftar]], and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blanchard |first1=Christopher M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlFdMjJwC30C&dq=1993+libya+coup&pg=PA12 |title=Libya: Background and U. S. Relations |date=2010 |page=12 |publisher=DIANE |isbn=9781437922035 |access-date=3 February 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180305/https://books.google.com/books?id=RlFdMjJwC30C&dq=1993+libya+coup&pg=PA12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Helms |first1=Jesse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SI2AAAAIAAJ&dq=1993+libya+coup&pg=PA1141 |title=Country Reports on Human Rights |date=1995 |edition=994 |access-date=3 February 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307180255/https://books.google.com/books?id=3SI2AAAAIAAJ&dq=1993+libya+coup&pg=PA1141 |url-status=live }}</ref> while in September 1995, Islamists launched an insurgency in Benghazi, and in July 1996 an anti-Gaddafist football riot broke out in Tripoli.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=166|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=223}} In March 1996, Haftar again briefly returned to Libya to instigate an uprising against Gaddafi in the mountains of [[Cyrenaica|eastern Libya]].<ref name="bi-201404222" /> The Revolutionary Committees experienced a resurgence to combat these Islamists.{{sfn|Vandewalle|2008b|p=29}}

In 1989, Gaddafi was overjoyed by the foundation of the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], uniting Libya in an economic pact with Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria, viewing it as beginnings of a new pan-Arab union.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=188|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=216–218}} Gaddafi was able to recover some influence in Chad after [[Hissène Habré]] was overthrown by [[Idriss Déby]] in a [[1990 Chadian coup d'état|Libya-sponsored coup]] in 1990.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Noble |first1=Kenneth B. |last2=Times |first2=Special To the New York |date=6 December 1990 |title=In Chad, Talk of a Libyan Resurgence |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/06/world/in-chad-talk-of-a-libyan-resurgence.html |access-date=8 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=17 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617031150/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/06/world/in-chad-talk-of-a-libyan-resurgence.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |last=Chutel |first=Lynsey |title=Why the World Won't Criticize Chad |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/04/14/chad-election-idriss-deby-terror-sahel/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416064001/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/04/14/chad-election-idriss-deby-terror-sahel/ |archive-date=16 April 2021 |access-date=20 April 2021 |website=Foreign Policy |date=14 April 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Riding |first1=Alan |last2=Times |first2=Special To the New York |date=3 December 1990 |title=REBELS IN CONTROL OF CHAD'S CAPITAL |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/03/world/rebels-in-control-of-chad-s-capital.html |url-status=live |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119062528/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/03/world/rebels-in-control-of-chad-s-capital.html |archive-date=19 November 2018 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Déby also gave Gaddafi detailed information about [[CIA]] operations in Chad.<ref name="Dictionary of African Biography20122">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=bidayat+clan+zaghawa+africa&pg=RA1-PA172 |title=Dictionary of African Biography |date=2 February 2012 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=9780195382075 |pages=172–173 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420213744/https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=bidayat+clan+zaghawa+africa&pg=RA1-PA172 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, Libya stepped up its support for anti-Western militants such as the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]],{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=197}} and in 1988, [[Pan Am Flight 103]] was blown up over [[Lockerbie]] in Scotland, killing 243 passengers and 16 crew members, plus 11 people on the ground. British police investigations identified two Libyans&nbsp;– [[Abdelbaset al-Megrahi]] and [[Lamin Khalifah Fhimah]]&nbsp;– as the chief suspects, and in November 1991 issued a declaration demanding that Libya hand them over. When Gaddafi refused, citing the [[Montreal Convention]], the United Nations (UN) imposed Resolution 748 in March 1992, initiating economic sanctions against Libya which had deep repercussions for the country's economy.{{sfnm|1a1=Boyd-Judson|1y=2005|1pp=80–81|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008b|2p=39|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=133–140|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4pp=205–207}} The country suffered an estimated US$900&nbsp;million financial loss as a result.{{sfn|Vandewalle|2008b|p=42}} On 5 November 1995, US President Bill Clinton declared the US would continue to induce pressure on Libya, also recognizing that Libyan terrorists were responsible for the Lockerbie bombing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 November 1995 |title=Despair As Visit Banned By Gaddafi |work=Sunday Sun}}</ref> Further problems arose with the West when in January 1989, [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1989)|two Libyan warplanes were shot down by the US off the Libyan coast]] and in September 1989, [[UTA Flight 772]] was blown up over the Ténéré desert in Niger, killing all 170 people on board (156 passengers and 14 crew members).{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=202}}

In 1996, Gaddafi wrote a letter to the newly elected Prime Minister of Bangladesh, [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]]'s daughter [[Sheikh Hasina]], pleading with her to spare the lives of her father's assassins [[Syed Faruque Rahman]] and [[Khandaker Abdur Rashid]]. Rahman and Rashid both had business ties to Libya.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=SAAG |date=20 September 2011 |title=Gaddafi And The Killers Of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman – Analysis |url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/20092011-gaddafi-and-the-killers-of-sheikh-mujibur-rahman-analysis/ |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=Eurasia Review |language=en-US |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206153750/https://www.eurasiareview.com/20092011-gaddafi-and-the-killers-of-sheikh-mujibur-rahman-analysis/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Ahsan |first=Syed Badrul |date=21 September 2011 |title=Gaddafi and the assassins |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-203263 |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=6 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206153753/https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-203263 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many Arab and African states opposed the UN sanctions, with Mandela criticizing them on a visit to Gaddafi in October 1997, when he praised Libya for its work in fighting apartheid and awarded Gaddafi the [[Order of Good Hope]].{{sfnm|1a1=Boyd-Judson|1y=2005|1pp=73, 83|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=147|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3pp=205–206}} They would only be suspended in 1998 when Libya agreed to allow the extradition of the suspects to the [[Scottish Court in the Netherlands]], in a process overseen by Mandela.{{sfnm|1a1=Boyd-Judson|1y=2005|1pp=83–88|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2pp=146–148|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=206}} As a result of the trial, Fhimah was acquitted and al-Megrahi convicted.{{sfn|Boyd-Judson|2005|p=89}} Privately, Gaddafi maintained that he knew nothing about who perpetrated the bombing and that Libya had nothing to do with it.{{sfn|Boyd-Judson|2005|p=82}}

===Pan-Africanism, reconciliation and privatization: 1999–2011===

====Links with Africa and conflicts in the Arab League====
[[File:Muammar al-Gaddafi-30112006.jpg|thumb|upright|Gaddafi wearing an insignia showing the image of the African continent]]

During the final years of the 20th century, Gaddafi—frustrated by the failure of his pan-Arab ideals and the refusal of the Arab world to challenge the international air embargo imposed on Libya—increasingly rejected Arab nationalism in favour of [[pan-Africanism]], emphasizing Libya's African identity.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=142|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=227}}<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Schneider |first=Howard |date=4 October 1998 |title=LIBYA'S GADHAFI SAYS HIS FUTURE IS AFRICAN |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/10/04/libyas-gadhafi-says-his-future-is-african/be1b8b48-3639-442b-8c64-e1aabd36cfe4/ |access-date=13 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=28 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828041925/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/10/04/libyas-gadhafi-says-his-future-is-african/be1b8b48-3639-442b-8c64-e1aabd36cfe4/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 1998 interview, Gaddafi claimed that "the Arab world is finished" and expressed his wish for Libya to become a "black country."<ref name=":8" /> From 1997 to 2000, Libya initiated cooperative agreements or bilateral aid arrangements with 10 African states,{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=229}} and in 1999 joined the [[Community of Sahel–Saharan States]] (CEN–SAD).{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=2008|1p=99|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=189}} In June 1999, Gaddafi visited Mandela in South Africa,{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=226}} and the following month attended the OAU summit in [[Algiers]], calling for greater political and economic integration across the continent and advocating the foundation of a [[United States of Africa]].{{sfn|St. John|2012|pp=227–228}} He became one of the founders of the [[African Union]] (AU), initiated in July 2002 to replace the OAU. At the opening ceremonies, he called for African states to reject conditional aid from the [[Developed country|developed]] world, a direct contrast to the message of South African President [[Thabo Mbeki]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=190|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=229}} There was speculation that Gaddafi wanted to become the AU's first chair, raising concerns within Africa that this would damage the Union's international standing, particularly with the West.{{sfn|Ramutsindela|2009|p=3}}

At the third AU summit, held in Tripoli, Libya, in July 2005, Gaddafi called for greater integration, advocating a single AU passport, a common defence system, and a single currency, using the slogan: "The United States of Africa is the hope."{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1pp=190–191|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=230}} His proposal for a Union of African States, a project originally conceived by Ghana's [[Kwame Nkrumah]] in the 1960s, was rejected at the 2001 Assembly of Heads of States and Government (AHSG) summit in Lusaka by African leaders who thought it "unrealistic" and "utopian".{{sfn|Martin|2002|p=280}} In June 2005, Libya joined the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] (COMESA).{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=231}} In March 2008 in Uganda, Gaddafi gave a speech once again urging Africa to reject foreign aid.<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL17472166|title = Gaddafi says Africans must reject conditional aid|newspaper = Reuters|date = 17 March 2008|last1 = Kwera|first1 = Francis|access-date = 13 March 2021|archive-date = 14 July 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220714113120/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL17472166|url-status = live}}</ref> In August 2008, Gaddafi was proclaimed "[[King of Kings]]" by a committee of traditional African [[Tribal chief|leaders]];{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=188|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=270–271}} they [[coronation|crowned]] him in February 2009, in a ceremony held in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=190|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=272}} That same month, Gaddafi was elected as the chairperson of the African Union, a position he retained for one year.{{sfnm|1a1=Ramutsindela|1y=2009|1p=1|2a1=Kawczynski|2y=2011|2p=190|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=272}} In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders for the historical enslavement of Africans by the [[Arab slave trade]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chiwanza|first=Takudzwa Hillary|title=Muammar Gaddafi Apologized for the Cruel Treatment of Africans During the Arab Slave Trade {{!}} The African Exponent.|url=https://www.africanexponent.com/post/6905-gaddadi-apologized-for-the-arab-slave-trade|access-date=21 December 2020|website=The African Exponent|archive-date=14 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714113121/https://www.africanexponent.com/post/6905-gaddadi-apologized-for-the-arab-slave-trade|url-status=live}}</ref>

Meanwhile, Gaddafi continued to have testy relationships with most of his fellow Arab leaders. In the 2003 Arab League summit, Gaddafi was involved in a public verbal altercation with [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia]], then the Crown Prince. Gaddafi accused Saudi Arabia of having made an "alliance with the devil" when it invited the US to intervene in the 1991 [[Gulf War]]. Abdullah responded that Gaddafi was a "liar" and an "agent of colonizers" and threatened Gaddafi that "your grave awaits you."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ghabra |first=Shafeeq |date=9 March 2003 |title=An Arab House, Openly Divided |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2003/03/09/an-arab-house-openly-divided/a5cac861-a977-486b-bdee-4d657ec4a223/ |access-date=4 February 2023 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Two weeks after the summit, Gaddafi allegedly plotted with the Emir [[Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani]] of [[Qatar]] to assassinate Abdullah.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Libya 'plotted to kill' Saudi Crown Prince |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/libya-plotted-to-kill-saudi-crown-prince-1.986510 |access-date=4 February 2023 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075412/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/libya-plotted-to-kill-saudi-crown-prince-1.986510 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2017 |title=Qatar plotted to assassinate King Abdullah: Saudi Media Advisor |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/7931/Qatar-plotted-to-assassinate-King-Abdullah-Saudi-Media-Advisor |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=EgyptToday |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075408/https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/7931/Qatar-plotted-to-assassinate-King-Abdullah-Saudi-Media-Advisor |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title='UAE ruler's friend' ran Libyan plot to kill Saudi crown prince |language=fr |work=Middle East Eye édition française |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/fr/news/saudi-king-assassination-plot-planned-uae-citizen-1134806678 |access-date=4 February 2023 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075413/https://www.middleeasteye.net/fr/news/saudi-king-assassination-plot-planned-uae-citizen-1134806678 |url-status=live }}</ref> The plot was overseen by Libyan intelligence chief [[Moussa Koussa]], Mohammed Ismail (a colonel in Gaddafi's military intelligence), and [[Abdul Rahman al-Amoudi]] (an American citizen and founder of [[American Muslim Council]]). The assassination conspiracy was foiled by Saudi intelligence with the help of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] and [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tyler |first=Patrick E. |date=10 June 2004 |title=Two Said to Tell Of Libyan Plot Against Saudi |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/10/world/two-said-to-tell-of-libyan-plot-against-saudi.html |access-date=4 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075407/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/10/world/two-said-to-tell-of-libyan-plot-against-saudi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Amoudi was sentenced to 23 years in prison in the US and stripped of his American citizenship. Ismail was arrested by Saudi Arabia, pardoned by Abdullah in 2005, and later acquired [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] citizenship due to his close ties with its ruler [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]].<ref name=":1" /> After the failure of the assassination plot, Gaddafi continued to discuss instigating a [[regime change]] in Saudi Arabia with multiple [[power broker]]s in the [[Persian Gulf]], including Qatar's Foreign Minister [[Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani]], [[Oman]]'s foreign minister [[Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah]], and Kuwaiti extremist preacher Hakem al-Mutairi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2017 |title=Former Qatari Emir conspired with Qaddafi against Saudi Arabia |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/features/2017/06/08/Former-Qatari-Emir-conspired-with-Gaddafi-against-Saudi-Arabia |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075415/https://english.alarabiya.net/features/2017/06/08/Former-Qatari-Emir-conspired-with-Gaddafi-against-Saudi-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 May 2020 |title=Libya's Gaddafi sought to replace Saudi Arabia's ruling family |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/28858/leaked-phone-call-libyas-gaddafi-sought-to-replace-saudi-arabias-ruling-family/ |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=The Africa Report.com |language=en-US |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075414/https://www.theafricareport.com/28858/leaked-phone-call-libyas-gaddafi-sought-to-replace-saudi-arabias-ruling-family/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2020 |title=Gaddafi, extremist preacher discuss overthrowing Saudi, Kuwaiti governments: Audio |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/features/2020/07/25/Gaddafi-extremist-preacher-discuss-overthrowing-Saudi-Kuwaiti-governments-Audio- |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075414/https://english.alarabiya.net/features/2020/07/25/Gaddafi-extremist-preacher-discuss-overthrowing-Saudi-Kuwaiti-governments-Audio- |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Gaddafi–Abdullah feud came into public view again in the [[2009 Arab League summit]] when Gaddafi accused Abdullah, who had become [[King of Saudi Arabia]] in 2005, of being created by Britain and protected by the US.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muammar Gaddafi accuses Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah of lying at Arab summit |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/qatar/5079290/Muammar-Gaddafi-accuses-Saudi-Arabias-King-Abdullah-of-lying-at-Arab-summit.html |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk |date=30 March 2009 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075407/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/qatar/5079290/Muammar-Gaddafi-accuses-Saudi-Arabias-King-Abdullah-of-lying-at-Arab-summit.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Alluding to their 2003 altercation, Gaddafi taunted Abdullah for ostensibly avoiding a confrontation with him for six years and quoted Abdullah's 2003 "grave awaits you" threat back at him before storming out of the meeting to visit a museum.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2009 |title=Libya's Gaddafi hurls insults at Saudi king |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/libyas-gaddafi-hurls-insults-at-saudi-king-20141031-9h9r.html |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075407/https://www.smh.com.au/world/libyas-gaddafi-hurls-insults-at-saudi-king-20141031-9h9r.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah also left the meeting hall in anger.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Libyan, Saudi leaders walk out of Arab Summit after a spat |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/qatar/libyan-saudi-leaders-walk-out-of-arab-summit-after-a-spat-1.60102 |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=gulfnews.com |date=30 March 2009 |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075407/https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/qatar/libyan-saudi-leaders-walk-out-of-arab-summit-after-a-spat-1.60102 |url-status=live }}</ref> A Saudi official later claimed that Gaddafi and Abdullah had held a 30 minutes meeting at the sideline of the summit and that the "personal problem" between them was "over."<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2009 |title=Libyan, Saudi leaders 'make up' at Doha meeting |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20090331-libyan-saudi-leaders-make-doha-meeting- |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=France 24 |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075413/https://www.france24.com/en/20090331-libyan-saudi-leaders-make-doha-meeting- |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Gaddafi had given weapons and money to the [[Houthi movement|Houthis]] to attack Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yobserver.com/front-page/10021347.html|title=Mana'a and al-Ahmar received money from Gaddafi to shake security of KSA, Yemen|date=4 September 2011|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130210080152/http://www.yobserver.com/front-page/10021347.html|archive-date=10 February 2013|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

====Rebuilding links with the West====
[[File:Muammar al-Gaddafi at the AU summit.jpg|thumb|left|Gaddafi at the AU summit]]
In 1999, Libya began secret talks with the British government to normalize relations.{{sfn|Vandewalle|2008a|p=215}} In 2001, Gaddafi publicly condemned the [[September 11 attacks]] on the US by [[al-Qaeda]], expressing sympathy with the victims and calling for Libyan involvement in the US-led [[War on Terror]] against militant Islamism.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008a|1p=220|2a1=St. John|2y=2008|2p=101|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3p=176|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=243}} His government continued suppressing domestic Islamism, at the same time as Gaddafi called for the wider application of ''sharia'' law.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=254}} Libya also cemented connections with China and North Korea, being visited by Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] in April 2002.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=235}} However, relations with China became strained in May 2006 due to a visit to Tripoli by Taiwanese President [[Chen Shui-bian]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2006 |title=China blasts Libya over Taiwan president's visit |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2006-05-11-china-blasts-libya-over-taiwan-presidents-visit/ |access-date=3 February 2023 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203104754/https://mg.co.za/article/2006-05-11-china-blasts-libya-over-taiwan-presidents-visit/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Koike |first=Yuriko |title=China's African mischief |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2011/10/3/chinas-african-mischief |access-date=3 February 2023 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203104754/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2011/10/3/chinas-african-mischief |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 May 2006 |title=Taiwan's Chen stops over in Libya |language=en-GB |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4760471.stm |access-date=3 February 2023 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203104754/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4760471.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Influenced by the events of the [[Iraq War]], in December 2003, Libya renounced its possession of [[Weapon of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]], [[Disarmament of Libya|decommissioning its chemical and nuclear weapons programs]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2006|1p=8|2a1=Vandewalle|2y=2008a|2p=217|3a1=Kawczynski|3y=2011|3pp=162, 184|4a1=St. John|4y=2012|4p=244|5a1=Kamel|5y=2016|5p=694}} Relations with the US improved as a result.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1pp=178–179|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=245}} British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] visited Gaddafi in March 2004;{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1pp=240–241|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=240–241}} the pair developed close personal ties.{{sfn|Zoubir|2009|p=412}} In 2003, Libya paid US$2.7 billion to the families of the victims of the Lockerbie bombing as it was the condition the US and UK had made for terminating the remaining UN sanctions. Libya continued to deny any role in the bombing.{{sfnm|1a1=Boyd-Judson|1y=2005|1p=91|2a1=St. John|2y=2008|2p=101}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The Europa World Year: Kazakhstan – Zimbabwe, Volume 2|page=2655|publisher=Routledge|quote=Secretary of the GPC, Shukri Muhammad Ghanem.... claimed that compensation was being paid to the families of the Lockerbie victims in order to 'buy peace' and avoid sanctions and that the country did not accept responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing}}</ref> In 2009, Gaddafi attempted to strong-arm global energy companies operating in Libya to cover Libya's settlement with the families of the victims of Lockerbie.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news |last1=Lichtblau |first1=Eric |last2=Rohde |first2=David |last3=Risen |first3=James |date=24 March 2011 |title=Shady Dealings Helped Qaddafi Build Fortune and Regime |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/24/world/africa/24qaddafi.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328111448/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/24/world/africa/24qaddafi.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Vladimir Putin and Muammar Gaddafi.ogv|thumb|Video showing the meeting with Russian Prime Minister [[Vladimir Putin]] and Muammar Gaddafi, in 2008]]

In 2004, Gaddafi traveled to the headquarters of the [[European Union]] (EU) in [[Brussels]]—signifying improved relations between Libya and the EU—and the EU dropped its sanctions on Libya.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=175|2a1=St. John|2y=2008|2p=101|3a1=St. John|3y=2012|3p=237}} As a strategic player in Europe's attempts to stem illegal migration from Africa,{{sfn|Zoubir|2009|p=408}} in October 2010, the EU paid Libya over €50&nbsp;million to stop African migrants passing into Europe; Gaddafi encouraged the move, saying that it was necessary to prevent the loss of European cultural identity to a new "Black Europe".{{sfnm|1a1=St. John|1y=2012|1p=274|2a1=Kamel|2y=2016|2p=684}} Gaddafi also completed agreements with the Italian government that they would invest in various infrastructure projects as reparations for past Italian colonial policies in Libya.{{sfn|Zoubir|2009|p=410}} Italian Prime Minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]] gave Libya an official apology in 2006, after which Gaddafi called him the "iron man" for his courage in doing so.{{sfn|Zoubir|2009|pp=410–411}} In August 2008, Gaddafi and Berlusconi signed a historic cooperation [[treaty]] in [[Benghazi]];<ref name="treaty">{{cite web |url=http://www.senato.it/parlam/leggi/09007l.htm |title=Ratifica ed esecuzione del Trattato di amicizia, partenariato e cooperazione tra la Repubblica italiana e la Grande Giamahiria araba libica popolare socialista, fatto a Bengasi il 30 August 2008 |language=it |publisher=[[Parliament of Italy]] press release |date=6 February 2009 |access-date=10 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618082911/http://www.senato.it/parlam/leggi/09007l.htm |archive-date=18 June 2009}}</ref><ref name="ansa">{{cite news |url=http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |publisher=[[Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata|ANSA]] |title=Gaddafi to Rome for Historic Visit |date=10 June 2009 |access-date=10 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616155752/http://www.ansa.it/site/notizie/awnplus/english/news/2009-06-09_109379246.html |archive-date=16 June 2009 }}</ref> under its terms, Italy would pay $5&nbsp;billion to Libya as compensation for its former [[Italian Libya|military occupation]]. In exchange, Libya would take measures to combat [[illegal immigration]] coming from its shores and boost investment in Italian companies.<ref name=ansa /><ref name="rep">{{cite news |newspaper=[[La Repubblica]] |url=http://www.repubblica.it/2008/05/sezioni/esteri/libia-italia/accordo-firmato/accordo-firmato.html |title=Italia-Libia, firmato l'accordo |language=it |date=30 August 2008 |access-date=10 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000538/http://www.repubblica.it/2008/05/sezioni/esteri/libia-italia/accordo-firmato/accordo-firmato.html |archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref>

After the US removed Libya from its list of state sponsors of terrorism in 2006,{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|p=176}} Gaddafi nevertheless continued his anti-Western rhetoric. At the [[2008 Arab League summit]], held in Syria, he warned fellow Arab leaders that they could be overthrown and executed by the US like [[Saddam Hussein]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Friedman |first=Uri |date=24 August 2011 |title=Qaddafi Warns Chuckling Arab Leaders in 2008 That Their End Is Near |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/08/watch-qaddafi-warn-laughing-arab-leaders-their-end-near/338775/ |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204075415/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/08/watch-qaddafi-warn-laughing-arab-leaders-their-end-near/338775/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gaddafi condemns Arab leaders |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2008/3/29/gaddafi-condemns-arab-leaders |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=22 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722161642/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2008/03/200861501453203859.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the [[Second Africa-South America Summit]], held in Venezuela in September 2009, he called for a military alliance across Africa and Latin America to rival NATO.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gaddafi Proposed the Creation of a South Atlantic Military Alliance |website=MercoPress |date=28 September 2009 |url=http://en.mercopress.com/2009/09/28/gaddafi-proposed-the-creation-of-a-south-atlantic-military-alliance |access-date=13 July 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218192040/http://en.mercopress.com/2009/09/28/gaddafi-proposed-the-creation-of-a-south-atlantic-military-alliance |archive-date=18 February 2010 }}</ref> That same month he traveled to New York City and addressed the [[United Nations General Assembly]] for the first time on 23 September 2009, using it to condemn "Western aggression," and spoke for just over 90 minutes instead of the allotted 15.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=276}}<ref>{{cite news |first=Neil |last=MacFarquhar |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/24/world/24nations.html |title=Libyan Leader Delivers a Scolding in U.N. Debut |date=23 September 2009 |access-date=28 June 2012 |website=The New York Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606071635/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/24/world/24nations.html |archive-date=6 June 2017 }}</ref> In the Spring of 2010, Gaddafi proclaimed ''jihad'' against Switzerland after Swiss police accused two of his family members of criminal activity in the country, resulting in the breakdown of bilateral relations.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=274}}

Gaddafi allegedly financed [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] in the [[2007 French presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 March 2018 |title=French police hold ex-president Sarkozy over 'Gaddafi funding' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43469316 |access-date=4 February 2023 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320180502/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43469316 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Matamoros |first=Cristina Abellan |date=20 March 2018 |title=Sarkozy funding scandal: what does it all mean? |url=https://www.euronews.com/2018/03/20/sarkozy-in-libya-case-what-does-it-all-mean- |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080913/https://www.euronews.com/2018/03/20/sarkozy-in-libya-case-what-does-it-all-mean- |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2018 |title=Gaddafi relations haunt Sarkozy in 2007 campaign financing case |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20180320-france-libya-sarkozy-gaddafi-relations-haunt-2007-campaign-financing-case-custody |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=France 24 |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080912/https://www.france24.com/en/20180320-france-libya-sarkozy-gaddafi-relations-haunt-2007-campaign-financing-case-custody |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 January 2014 |title=Gaddafi funded 'mentally deficient' Sarkozy, interview claims |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20140128-france-sarkozy-gaddafi-campaign-funds-libya-television |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=France 24 |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080913/https://www.france24.com/en/20140128-france-sarkozy-gaddafi-campaign-funds-libya-television |url-status=live }}</ref> He also financed Austrian far-right politician [[Jörg Haider]] starting in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Martin A. |date=13 August 2000 |title=Ties That Bind Kadafi and Neo-Fascists |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-aug-13-op-3534-story.html |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080913/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-aug-13-op-3534-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Austria investigates Haider links |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/8/3/austria-investigates-haider-links |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080913/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/8/3/austria-investigates-haider-links |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gaddafi backs 'friend' Haider |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1343369/Gaddafi-backs-friend-Haider.html |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk |date=16 June 2000 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080913/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1343369/Gaddafi-backs-friend-Haider.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Economic reform====
Libya's economy witnessed increasing [[privatization]]; although rejecting the socialist policies of nationalized industry advocated in ''The Green Book'', government figures asserted that they were forging "people's socialism" rather than capitalism.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=250}} Gaddafi welcomed these reforms, calling for wide-scale privatization in a March 2003 speech;{{sfn|Vandewalle|2008a|p=224}} he promised that Libya would join the [[World Trade Organization]].{{sfn|St. John|2008|pp=101–102}} These reforms encouraged private investment in Libya's economy.{{sfn|Kamel|2016|p=697}} By 2004, there was US$40&nbsp;billion of direct foreign investment in Libya, a six-fold rise over 2003.{{sfnm|1a1=Kawczynski|1y=2011|1p=180|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2p=248}} Sectors of Libya's population reacted against these reforms with public demonstrations,{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=248}} and in March 2006, revolutionary hard-liners took control of the GPC cabinet; although scaling back the pace of the changes, they did not halt them.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008a|1p=228|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=249–250}} In 2010, plans were announced that would have seen half the Libyan economy privatized over the following decade,{{sfn|St. John|2012|pp=263–264}} these plans appear to have been soon abandoned however, as the companies that the government stated they were going to float on the stock market, among them the National Commercial Bank and the [[Libyan Iron and Steel Company]] were never floated and remained 100% state-owned. Many socialist policies remained however, with subsidiaries of logistics company HB Group being nationalized in 2007.{{sfnm|1a1=Cooley|1y=1983|1pp=467–489|2a1=Blundy|2a2=Lycett|2y=1987|2p=156|3a1=Sacerdoti|3a2=Acconci|3y=2011|3pp=312–313}} Agriculture remained largely untouched by the reforms, with farms remaining cooperatives, the [[Agricultural Bank of Libya]] remaining wholly state-owned and state interventionist policies and price controls remaining.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Oliveira|first=Ingrid|title=Libya|url=https://www.g-fras.org/es/world-wide-extension-study/africa/northern-africa/libya.html|access-date=13 January 2021|website=GFRAS|language=es|archive-date=14 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714181011/https://www.g-fras.org/es/world-wide-extension-study/africa/northern-africa/libya.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The oil industry remained largely state-owned, with the wholly state-owned [[National Oil Corporation]] retaining a 70% share in Libya's oil industry, the government also imposed a 93% tax on all oil that foreign companies produced in Libya.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hargreaves|first=Steve|title=Libya oil eyed by Western companies|url=https://money.cnn.com/2011/10/25/news/international/libya_oil/index.htm|access-date=13 January 2021|website=CNNMoney|archive-date=27 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027213334/https://money.cnn.com/2011/10/25/news/international/libya_oil/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Price controls and subsidies over oil and food remained in place, and state-provided benefits such as free education, universal healthcare, free housing, free water and free electricity remained in place.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gwaambuka|first=Tatenda|title=Ten Reasons Libya Under Gaddafi Was a Great Place to Live {{!}} The African Exponent.|url=https://www.africanexponent.com/post/ten-reasons-libya-under-gaddafi-was-a-great-place-to-live-2746|access-date=13 January 2021|website=The African Exponent|archive-date=14 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714174056/https://www.africanexponent.com/post/ten-reasons-libya-under-gaddafi-was-a-great-place-to-live-2746|url-status=live}}</ref> Libya also changed its stance on the WTO after the removal of technocrat [[Shukri Ghanem]], with Gaddafi condemning the WTO as a neocolonial terrorist organisation, and urging African and Third World countries not to join it.<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/eu-africa-summit-idUKLDE6AS18N20101129|title = Gaddafi issues warning to EU over African trade|newspaper = Reuters|date = 29 November 2010|access-date = 24 May 2021|archive-date = 14 July 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220714174056/https://www.reuters.com/article/eu-africa-summit-idUKLDE6AS18N20101129|url-status = live}}</ref>

While there was no accompanying political liberalization, with Gaddafi retaining predominant control,{{sfn|Vandewalle|2008a|p=231}} in March 2010, the government devolved further powers to the municipal councils.{{sfn|St. John|2012|p=257}} Rising numbers of reformist technocrats attained positions in the country's governance; best known was Gaddafi's son and heir apparent [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]], who was openly critical of Libya's human rights record. He led a group who proposed the drafting of a new constitution, although it was never adopted.{{sfnm|1a1=Vandewalle|1y=2008a|1p=225|2a1=St. John|2y=2012|2pp=249–269}} Involved in encouraging tourism, Saif founded several privately run media channels in 2008, but after criticizing the government, they were nationalized in 2009.{{sfn|Kawczynski|2011|pp=216, 227–228}}