Editing Mercenary (section)

===Europe===

====Classical era====
{{See also|Ancient Greek mercenaries|Mercenaries of the ancient Iberian Peninsula}}

=====Greek mercenaries in Persian Empire=====
[[File: Detail from the Chigi-vase.jpg|thumb|[[Chigi vase]] with [[hoplite]]s holding javelins and spears]]

* [[Xerxes I]], King of Persia, employed Arcadian mercenaries during his invasion of Greece.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Trundle |first=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V1KSA4tJvsQC |title=Greek Mercenaries: From the Late Archaic Period to Alexander |date=2004-09-09 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-30433-2 |language=en}}</ref>
* In [[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]], [[Xenophon]] recounts how [[Cyrus the Younger]] hired a large army of Greek mercenaries (the "[[Ten Thousand (Greek)|Ten Thousand]]") in 401&nbsp;BC to seize the throne of Persia from his brother, [[Artaxerxes II]]. Though Cyrus' army was victorious at the [[Battle of Cunaxa]], Cyrus himself was killed in battle and the expedition rendered moot. Stranded deep in enemy territory, the Spartan general [[Clearchus of Sparta|Clearchus]] and most of the other Greek generals were subsequently killed by treachery. Xenophon played an instrumental role in encouraging "The Ten Thousand" Greek army to march north to the [[Black Sea]] in an epic fighting retreat.<ref>[[Xenophon]], ''[[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'' vii. 1. 1–32</ref>
* The [[Sileraioi]] were a group of ancient mercenaries most likely employed by the tyrant [[Dionysius I of Syracuse]].<ref>J. B. Bury, ''The Cambridge Ancient History'' VI: Macedon, 401–301 BC, Ch. 5, Cambridge: University Press, 1975.</ref>
* In 378 BC the Persian Empire hired the [[Athenian]] general [[Iphicrates]] with his mercenaries in the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] campaign.<ref>Polyaenus, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210621062830/https://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg0616/tlg001/1st1K-grc1/3.9 ''Strategems'']}}, 3.9.38</ref>
* The [[Mania (satrap)|Mania]], who was a sub-[[satrap]], used Greek mercenaries in order to capture other cities in the region.<ref>Xenophon, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg001.perseus-grc1:3.1.13 ''Hellenika''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621194228/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg001.perseus-grc1:3.1.13 |date=21 June 2022 }}, 3.1.13</ref>
* [[Memnon of Rhodes]] (380–333&nbsp;BC) was the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for the Persian King [[Darius III]] when [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]]ia invaded Persia in 334&nbsp;BC and won the [[Battle of the Granicus River]].{{sfn|Schuster|2016|pages=366–367}} Alexander also employed Greek mercenaries during his campaigns. These were men who fought for him directly and not those who fought in city-state units attached to his army.<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 11}}</ref>

=====Greek mercenaries in ancient India=====
Greek mercenaries were a significant part of the military forces in ancient India, particularly under the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]s and the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]. These [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] states, founded by Greek rulers after the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], frequently employed mercenaries from the wider Greek world to maintain control over their territories and to engage in warfare with both Indian and Central Asian adversaries.

The presence of Greek mercenaries in India is documented in ancient [[Tamil literature]], such as the ''[[Purananuru]]'', which describes Greek soldiers, referred to as "[[Yona|Yavanas]]," (transliteration of "Ionians") as formidable warriors serving Indian rulers. These texts depict them as "valiant-eyed Yavanas, whose bodies were strong and of terrible aspect." <ref>{{cite book|title=History of Indian Theatre|last1=Pande|first1=L. V.|last2=Varadpande|first2=M. L.|date=1987|volume=1|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-8170172215|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC|page=235|access-date=12 March 2025|archive-date=15 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215134446/https://books.google.com/books?id=SyxOHOCVcVkC|url-status=live}}</ref>

Greek mercenaries were particularly prominent in the armies of the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings. [[Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher]] suggested that some of the warrior figures depicted in [[Gandhara]] art may represent Greek mercenaries, further supporting their role in military campaigns.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Greeks in Bactria and India|author=William Woodthorpe Tarn|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1108009416|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HeJS3nE9cAC|page=250|access-date=12 March 2025|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115070732/https://books.google.com/books?id=-HeJS3nE9cAC|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Stephanus of Byzantium recorded the existence of an ancient city called Daedala or Daidala ({{langx|grc|Δαίδαλα}}) in India,<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, [https://topostext.org/work/241 ''Ethnica''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410155716/https://topostext.org/work/241 |date=10 April 2021 }}, D216.8</ref> which he described as Indo-Cretan, likely due to the presence of Cretan mercenaries. This suggests that Greek soldiers not only fought in Indian campaigns but also settled in military colonies, forming part of the Hellenistic governance in the region.<ref>{{cite book| last = Woodthorpe Tarn| first = William| title = The Greeks in Bactria and India| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-HeJS3nE9cAC| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]| year = 2010| page = 250| isbn = 978-1108009416| access-date = 12 March 2025| archive-date = 15 January 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230115070732/https://books.google.com/books?id=-HeJS3nE9cAC| url-status = live}}</ref>

=====Carthage=====
* [[Carthage]] contracted [[Balearic Islands]] shepherds as [[Balearic slinger|slingers]] during the [[Punic Wars]] against Rome.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}} The vast majority of the Carthaginian military – except the highest officers, the navy, and the [[Sacred Band of Carthage|home guard]] – were mercenaries.{{sfn|Scullard|2006|p=567}}
* [[Xanthippus of Carthage]] was a [[Sparta]]n mercenary general employed by Carthage.
* Greek mercenaries were hired by Carthage to fight against the [[Dionysius I of Syracuse]]. Dionysius made Carthage pay a very high ransom for the Carthaginian prisoners, but he left the Greek mercenaries prisoners free without any ransom. This made the Carthaginians suspicious of their Greek mercenaries and discharged them all from their service. With this trick Dionysius did not have to fight again against the Greek mercenaries of Carthage who were very dangerous enemies.<ref>Polyaenus, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210612150758/https://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg0616/tlg001/1st1K-grc1/5.2 Strategems]}}, 5.2.17</ref>

=====Byzantine Empire=====
In the late [[Roman Empire]], it became increasingly difficult for Emperors and generals to raise military units from the citizenry for various reasons: lack of manpower, lack of time available for training, lack of materials, and, inevitably, political considerations. Therefore, beginning in the late 4th century, the empire often contracted whole bands of [[barbarian]]s either within the [[Roman legion|legions]] or as autonomous [[foederati]]. The barbarians were [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] and surviving veterans were established in areas requiring population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/barb/hd_barb.htm|access-date=2021-01-19|website=Metropolitan Museum of Art|title=Barbarians and Romans &#124; Essay &#124; the Metropolitan Museum of Art &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201171252/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/barb/hd_barb.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Varangian Guard]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] is the best known formation made up of barbarian mercenaries (see next section).

=====Other=====
* Members of independent [[Thracians|Thracian]] tribes such as the [[Bessi]] and [[Dii]] often joined the ranks of large organized armies as mercenaries.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* The [[Mamertines|Sons of Mars]] were Italian mercenaries used by the Greek kings of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] until after the [[Punic Wars]].<ref name="Livius">Lendering, Jona. [https://www.livius.org/people/mamertines/ "Mamertines"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707111002/http://www.livius.org/people/mamertines/ |date=7 July 2015 }}. Livius.org</ref>
* A figure in oral legend, [[Milesius]] was given the princess [[Scota]] after conducting a successful campaign for [[Ancient Egypt]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3SYDwAAQBAJ&q=M%C3%ADl+Esp%C3%A1ine&pg=PA139|title=Ireland's Immortals: A History of the Gods of Irish Myth|date=2018|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691183046|location=|page=413|language=en|access-date=19 January 2021|archive-date=15 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215134429/https://books.google.com/books?id=C3SYDwAAQBAJ&q=M%C3%ADl+Esp%C3%A1ine&pg=PA139|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Mithridates VI Eupator]] recruited a large number of [[Persian people|Iranians]] along with the Galatians into the [[Pontic Greeks|Pontic]] army during the [[Mithridatic Wars]] against Rome, using the [[Leucosyri]], [[Persia]]ns and [[Scythians]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}
* [[Illyrians]] were hired across the [[Balkans]] and further. They were known for their unreliability.<ref>''The legacy of Alexander: politics, warfare, and propaganda under the successors'', {{ISBN|0198153066}}, 2002, p. 248, "The Illyrians moreover had not been reliable auxiliaries in the recent past."</ref>

====Medieval warfare====
{{See also|Routiers|Bertrand du Guesclin}}
[[Image:The body of Leo V is dragged to the Hippodrome through the Skyla Gate.jpg|thumb|[[Varangian Guard]]smen, an illumination from the 11th century chronicle of [[John Skylitzes]]]]
[[File:Turkic mercenary in Byzantine service - 1436 – PISANELLO.jpg|thumb|[[Oghuz Turks|Turkish]] mercenary in Byzantine service {{Circa|1436}}]]
[[File:Il Condottiere.jpg|thumb|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''Profilo di capitano antico'', also known as ''il [[Condottiero]]'', 1480. ''Condottiero'' meant "contractor" in its more literal sense but came to be applied to leaders of mercenary groups in [[Italy]] during the [[Late Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].]]
[[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperors]] followed the Roman practice and contracted foreigners especially for their personal [[corps]] guard called the [[Varangian Guard]]. They were chosen among war-prone peoples, of whom the [[Varangian]]s (Norsemen) were preferred. Their mission was to protect the Emperor and Empire and since they did not have links to the Greeks, they were expected to be ready to suppress rebellions. One of the most famous guards was the future king [[Harald III of Norway]], also known as Harald Hardrada ("Hard-counsel"), who arrived in Constantinople in 1035 and was employed as a Varangian Guard. He participated in eighteen battles and was promoted to {{lang|grc-Latn|akolythos}}, the commander of the Guard, before returning home in 1043. He was killed at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] in 1066 when his army was defeated by an English army commanded by King [[Harold Godwinson]]. The point at which the Varangians ceased to be in the service of the Roman Empire remains unclear.

In England at the time of the [[Norman Conquest]], [[Flemish people|Flemings]] (natives of [[Flanders]]) formed a substantial mercenary element in the forces of [[William the Conqueror]] with many remaining in England as settlers under the [[Normans]]. Contingents of mercenary Flemish soldiers were to form significant forces in England throughout the time of the Norman and early [[House of Plantagenet|Plantagenet]] dynasties (11th and 12th centuries). A prominent example of these were the Flemings who fought during the English civil wars, known as [[the Anarchy]] or [[the Nineteen-Year Winter]] (AD 1135 to 1154), under the command of [[William of Ypres]], who was [[Stephen of England|King Stephen]]'s chief lieutenant from 1139 to 1154 and who was made Earl of Kent by Stephen.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}}

In Italy, the {{lang|it|condottiero}} was a military chief offering his troops, the {{lang|it|[[condottieri]]}}, to Italian [[city-state]]s. The {{lang|it|condottieri}} were extensively used by the Italian city-states in their wars against one another. At times, the {{lang|it|condottieri}} seized control of the state, as one {{lang|it|condottiero}}, [[Francesco Sforza]], made himself the Duke of Milan in 1450.<ref>Lanning, Michael (2007), ''Mercenaries: Soldiers of Fortune, from Ancient Greece to Today's Private Military Companies'', New York: Random House, pp. 48–49</ref> During the ages of the [[Taifa]] kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula, Christian knights like [[El Cid]] could fight for a Muslim ruler against his Christian or Muslim enemies. The [[Almogavars]] originally fought for [[Count of Barcelona|the counts of Barcelona]] and [[Kingdom of Aragon|kings of Aragon]], but as the [[Catalan Company]], they followed [[Roger de Flor]] in the service of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. In 1311, the Catalan Great Company defeated at the [[Battle of Halmyros]] their former employer, [[Walter V, Count of Brienne]], after he refused to pay them, and took over the [[Duchy of Athens]].<ref>Lanning, Michael (2007), ''Mercenaries: Soldiers of Fortune, from Ancient Greece to Today's Private Military Companies'', New York: Random House, p. 44</ref> The Great Company ruled much of central and southern Greece until 1388–1390 when a rival mercenary company, the [[Navarrese Company]] were hired to oust them.<ref>Lanning, Michael (2007), ''Mercenaries: Soldiers of Fortune, from Ancient Greece to Today's Private Military Companies'', New York: Random House, p. 45</ref> Catalan and German mercenaries also had prominent role in the Serbian victory over Bulgarians in the [[Battle of Velbuzd]] in 1330.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Sack of the town.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tard-Venus]] ''[[routiers]]'' pillage Grammont in 1362, from [[Froissart's Chronicles]]]]
During the later Middle Ages, [[Free company|Free Companies]] (or ''Free Lances'') were formed, consisting of companies of mercenary troops. Nation-states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire free companies to serve in their armies during wartime.<ref name="Lanning, Michael p. 42">Lanning, Michael (2003), ''Mercenaries: Soldiers of Fortune, from Ancient Greece to Today's Private Military Companies'', New York: Random House, p. 42</ref> Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments.<ref name="Lanning, Michael p. 42"/> The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries.<ref name="Lanning, Michael p. 42"/> Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia.

The {{lang|fr|[[Routiers]]}} formed a distinctive subculture in medieval France who alternated between serving as mercenaries in wartime and bandits in peacetime.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strickland |first1=Matthew |title=War and Chivalry: The Conduct and Perception of War in England and Normandy, 1066–1217 |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=052144392X |pages=291–300}}</ref> The {{lang|fr|routiers}} were very destructive and became a significant social problem. After the [[Treaty of Brétigny]] ended the war between England and France in 1360, the French countryside was overrun by Free Companies of {{lang|fr|routiers}} while the French Crown lacked the necessary military and economic strength to put an end to their activities.<ref>Paz González, Carlos (2007), "The Role of Mercenary Troops in Spain in the Fourteenth Century" pp. 331–344, in John France (ed.), ''Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages'' Leiden: Brill, pp. 331–332</ref> To rid France of the rampaging mercenaries and to overthrow the pro-English King [[Peter of Castile|Pedro the Cruel]] of Castile, Marshal [[Bertrand du Guesclin]] was directed by King [[Charles V of France]] to take the Free Companies into Castile with the orders to put the pro-French [[Henry II of Castile|Enrique de Trastámara]] on the Castilian throne.<ref>Paz González, Carlos (2007), "The Role of Mercenary Troops in Spain in the Fourteenth Century", pp. 331–344, in John France (ed.), ''Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages'', Leiden: Brill, 2007 pp. 337–338</ref> Guesclin's mercanaries were organized into the Big Companies and French Companies and placed a decisive role in putting Enrique on the Castilian throne in 1369, who styled himself King Enrique II, the first Castilian monarch of the House of Trastámara.<ref>Paz González, Carlos (2007), "The Role of Mercenary Troops in Spain in the Fourteenth Century", pp. 331–344, in John France (ed.), ''Mercenaries and Paid Men: The Mercenary Identity in the Middle Ages'', Leiden: Brill, pp. 338–341</ref>

The [[White Company]] commanded by Sir [[John Hawkwood]] is the best known English Free Company of the 14th century. Between the 13th and 17th centuries the [[Gallowglass]] fought within the Islands of Britain and also mainland Europe. A Welshman [[Owain Lawgoch]] (Owain of the Red Hand) formed a free company and fought for the French against the English during the [[Hundred Years' War]], before being assassinated by a Scot named Jon Lamb, under the orders of the English Crown, during the siege of Mortagne in 1378.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.100welshheroes.com/en/biography/owainlawgoch|title=Owain Lawgoch (English:Owain of the Red Hand, French:Yvain de Galles)|publisher=100welshheroes.com|access-date=26 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124191956/http://www.100welshheroes.com/en/biography/owainlawgoch|archive-date=24 January 2010}}</ref>

====15th and 16th centuries====
[[File:Urs Graf Schrecken des Kriegs 1521.jpg|thumb|The battlefield of [[Battle of Marignano|Marignano]], drawing by [[Urs Graf]], himself a Swiss mercenary who may have fought there]]
[[File:Five German Soldiers MET DP822162.jpg|thumb|Landsknechte, [[etching]] by [[Daniel Hopfer]], {{Circa|1530}}]]
[[Swiss mercenaries]] were sought during the late 15th and early 16th centuries as being an effective fighting force, until their somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable to [[Harquebus|arquebuses]] and [[artillery]] being developed at the same time. The [[Swiss Guard]] in particular were employed by the [[Papal States]] from 1506 (continuing to serve today as the military of [[Vatican City]]).

It was then that the German [[landsknecht]]s, colourful mercenaries with a redoubtable reputation, took over the Swiss forces' legacy and became the most formidable force of the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, being hired by all the powers in Europe and often fighting at opposite sides. Sir [[Thomas More]] in his [[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]] advocated the use of mercenaries in preference to citizens. The barbarian mercenaries employed by the Utopians are thought to be inspired by the Swiss mercenaries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

At approximately the same period, [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] argued against the use of mercenary armies in his book of political advice ''[[The Prince]]''. His rationale was that since the sole motivation of mercenaries is their pay, they will not be inclined to take the kind of risks that can turn the tide of a battle, but may cost them their lives. He also noted that a mercenary who failed was obviously no good, but one who succeeded may be even more dangerous. He astutely pointed out that a successful mercenary army no longer needs its employer if it is more militarily powerful than its supposed superior. This explained the frequent, violent betrayals that characterized mercenary/client relations in Italy, because neither side trusted the other. He believed that citizens with a real attachment to their home country will be more motivated to defend it and thus make much better soldiers.

The [[Stratioti]] or Stradioti (Italian: Stradioti or Stradiotti; Greek: Στρατιώτες, Stratiotes) were mercenary units from the Balkans recruited mainly by states of southern and central Europe from the 15th until the middle of the 18th century. The stradioti were recruited in [[Albania]], Greece, [[Dalmatia]], [[Serbia]] and later [[Cyprus]]. Most modern historians have indicated that the Stratioti were mostly Albanians. According to a study by a Greek author, around 80% of the listed names attributed to the stradioti were of Albanian origin while most of the remaining ones, especially those of officers, were of Greek origin; a small minority were of South Slavic origin. Among their leaders there were also members of some old Byzantine Greek noble families such as the [[Palaiologoi]] and [[Comneni]]. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during this era. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian [[hussars]] and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern). They employed hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, feigned retreats and other complex maneuvers. In some ways, these tactics echoed those of the Ottoman sipahis and akinci. They had some notable successes also against French heavy cavalry during the Italian Wars. They were known for cutting off the heads of dead or captured enemies, and according to [[Philippe de Commines|Commines]] they were paid by their leaders one [[ducat]] per head.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

In Italy, during inter-family conflicts such as the [[Wars of Castro]], mercenaries were widely used to supplement the much smaller forces loyal to particular families.<ref>Joseph Farrell & Michael C. J. Putnam (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=nVWUluw8X8wC&dq=%22mercenaries%22+%22war+of+castro%22&pg=PA263 ''A Companion to Vergil's Aeneid and Its Tradition''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215134438/https://books.google.com.au/books?id=nVWUluw8X8wC&pg=PA263&lpg=PA263&dq=%22mercenaries%22+%22war+of+castro%22&source=bl&ots=VuzmVa8l53&sig=Hrm8VtOODq8VKLmPw-lgT17nXBU&hl=en&ei=7gU0TKrjOofJccf6hd0D&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result#v=onepage&q=%22mercenaries%22%20%22war%20of%20castro%22&f=false |date=15 February 2023 }}</ref> Often these were further supplemented by troops loyal to particular ''[[Italian nobility|duchies]]'' which had sided with one or more of the belligerents.


====17th and 18th centuries====
[[File:Bondi brennandi hus.jpg|thumb|A peasant begs a mercenary for mercy in front of his burning farm during the [[Thirty Years' War]].]]

During the 17th and 18th centuries, extensive use was made of foreign recruits in the now regimented and highly drilled armies of Europe, beginning in a systematized way with the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Historian [[Geoffrey Parker (historian)|Geoffrey Parker]] notes that 40,000 Scotsmen (about fifteen percent of the adult male population) served as soldiers in Continental Europe from 1618 to 1640.<ref>Geoffrey Parker (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8y8rHgucoC&pg=PA17 ''Europe in crisis, 1598–1648''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215134451/https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8y8rHgucoC&pg=PA17&dq=&hl=en |date=15 February 2023 }}. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 17. {{ISBN|0631220283}}</ref>
After the signing of the [[Treaty of Limerick]] (1691) the soldiers of the Irish Army who left Ireland for France took part in what is known as the ''[[Flight of the Wild Geese]]''. Subsequently, many made a living from fighting in continental armies, the most famous of whom was [[Patrick Sarsfield, 1st Earl of Lucan|Patrick Sarsfield]], who, having fallen mortally wounded at the [[Battle of Landen]] fighting for the French, said "If this was only for Ireland".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indigo.ie/~wildgees/sarsfiel.htm|title=Wild Geese Heritage Museum and Library|author=Patrick Sarsfield|website=indigo.ie|access-date=23 December 2006|archive-date=28 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061028071137/http://indigo.ie/~wildgees/sarsfiel.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The brutality of the Thirty Years' War, in which several parts of Germany were ransacked by the mercenary troops, and left almost unpopulated, led to the formation of standing armies of professional soldiers, recruited locally or abroad. These armies were active also in peacetime. The formation of these armies in the late 18th century led to professionalization and standardization of clothing (uniforms), equipment, drill, weapons, etc. Since smaller states like the Dutch Republic could afford a large standing army, but could not find enough recruits among its own citizens, recruiting foreigners was common. Prussia had developed a form of conscription, but relied in wartime also on foreign recruits, although the regulations stated that no more than one third of the recruits were to be foreign. Prussian recruiting methods were often aggressive, and resulted more than once in conflicts with neighbouring states. The term mercenary gained its notoriety during this development, since mercenaries were—and now are—often seen as soldiers who fight for no noble cause, but only for money, and who have no loyalty than to the highest bidder, as opposed to the professional soldiers who takes an oath of loyalty and who is seen as the defender of the nation.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

The mercenary soldiers thus fell out of favour and was replaced by the professional soldier. To augment the army, major European powers like France, Britain, the Dutch Republic and Spain contracted regiments from Switzerland, the Southern Netherlands (modern day Belgium), and several smaller German states. About a third of the infantry regiments of the French Royal Army prior to the [[French Revolution]] were recruited from outside France. The largest single group were the twelve Swiss regiments (including the [[Swiss Guard]]). Other units were German and one [[Irish Brigade (French)|Irish Brigade]] (the "[[Flight of the Wild Geese#French service|Wild Geese]]") had originally been made up of Irish volunteers. By 1789 difficulties in obtaining genuinely Irish recruits had led to German and other foreigners making up the bulk of the rank and file. The officers however continued to be drawn from long established Franco-Irish families. During the reign of Louis XV there was also a Scottish ({{lang|fr|[[Garde Écossaise]]}}), a Swedish ({{lang|fr|[[Royal-Suédois]]}}), an Italian (Royal-Italien) and a Walloon (Horion-Liegeois) regiment recruited outside the borders of France. The foreign infantry regiments comprised about 20,000 men in 1733, rising to 48,000 at the time of the [[Seven Years' War]] and being reduced in numbers thereafter.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

[[File:Scottish mercenaries in the Thirty Years War.jpg|thumb|The [[Scottish Highlands|Scottish Highlander mercenaries]], known as [[Redshank (soldier)|Redshanks]] in Ireland, in the service of [[Gustavus Adolphus]] of Sweden; 1631 German engraving]]

The Dutch Republic had contracted several Scots, Swiss and German regiments in the early 18th century, and kept three Scots, one Walloon, and six Swiss regiments (including a Guard regiment raised in 1749) throughout the 18th century. The Scots regiments were contracted from Great Britain, but as relations between Britain and the Republic deteriorated, the regiments could no longer recruit in Scotland, leading to the regiments being Scots in name only until they were nationalized in 1784.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} [[Patrick Gordon]], a Scottish mercenary fought at various times for Poland and Sweden, constantly changing his loyalty based on who could pay him the best, until he took up Russian service in 1661.<ref>Fedosov, Dmitry (2004). "Cock of the East: A Gordon Blade Abroad". pp. 1–10 in Ljubica and Mark Erickson (eds.), ''Russia: War, Peace and Diplomacy'', London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, p. 6</ref> In August 1689, during a coup d'état attempt in Moscow against co-tsar [[Peter the Great]] led by the [[Sophia Alekseyevna of Russia|Sophia Alekseyevna]] in the name of the other co-tsar, the intellectually disabled [[Ivan V of Russia|Ivan V]], Gordon played the decisive role in defeating the coup and ensuring Peter's triumph.<ref>Fedosov, Dmitry (2004). "Cock of the East: A Gordon Blade Abroad". pp. 1–10 in Ljubica and Mark Erickson (eds.), ''Russia: War, Peace and Diplomacy'', London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, p. 9</ref> Gordon remained one of Peter's favorite advisers until his death.

The Spanish Army also made use of permanently established foreign regiments. These were three [[Flight of the Wild Geese#Spanish service|Irish regiments]] (Irlanda, Hiberni and Ultonia); one Italian (Naples) and five Swiss (Wimpssen, Reding, Betschart, Traxer and Preux). In addition one regiment of the [[Spanish Royal Guard|Royal Guard]] including Irishmen as ''Patten'', ''McDonnell'' and ''Neiven'', was recruited from [[Walloon Guards|Walloons]]. The last of these foreign regiments was disbanded in 1815, following recruiting difficulties during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. One complication arising from the use of non-national troops occurred at the [[Battle of Bailén]] in 1808 when the "red Swiss" (so-called from their uniforms) of the invading French Army clashed bloodily with "blue Swiss" in the Spanish service.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

During the [[American Revolutionary War]], the British government hired several regiments from German principalities to supplement the Army. They became known to revolutionaries as [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessians]] and were portrayed by propagandists as mercenaries. However, they were auxiliaries and do not meet the definition of mercenary.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Showlater |first=Dennis |date=2007-09-05 |title=Hessians: The Best Armies Money Could Buy |url=https://www.historynet.com/hessians-the-best-armies-money-could-buy/ |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=HistoryNet}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-19 |title=Hessians |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/hessians |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref>

====19th–21st centuries====
During the South American wars of independence from Spain, the [[British Legions]] from 1817 onward fought for General [[Simón Bolívar]].<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Moises Enrique |title=Freedom's Mercenaries: Northern South America |date=2006 |publisher=Hamilton Books |location=Lantham |isbn=0761834370 |page=14}}</ref> Some of the British Legionaries were liberal idealists who went to South America to fight in a war for freedom, but others were the more classic mercenaries, mostly unemployed veterans of the Napoleonic wars, who fought for money. In South America, especially in [[Colombia]], the men of the British Legions are remembered as heroes for their crucial role in helping end Spanish rule.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Moises Enrique |title=Freedom's Mercenaries: Northern South America |date=2006 |publisher=Hamilton Books |location=Lantham |isbn=0761834370 |pages=1–2}}</ref> During the [[First Carlist War]], the British government suspended the Foreign Enlistment Act to allow the recruitment of a quasi-official [[British Auxiliary Legion]] under [[George de Lacy Evans]], which went to Spain to fight for Queen Isabel II against the followers of Don Carlos, the pretender to the Spanish throne.

The [[Atholl Highlanders]], a private Scottish infantry regiment of the [[Duke of Atholl]], was formed in 1839 purely for ceremonial purposes. It was granted official regimental status by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1845 and is the only remaining legal private army in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

Turkey and [[Azerbaijan]] deployed [[Syrian]] mercenaries during the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asiatimes.com/2020/10/turkey-deploys-syrian-mercenaries-to-karabakh-war/ |title=Turkey deploys Syrian mercenaries to Karabakh war |website=Asia Times |date=7 October 2020|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=12 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212010842/https://asiatimes.com/2020/10/turkey-deploys-syrian-mercenaries-to-karabakh-war/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Syrian mercenaries are being deployed by Russia, with expected numbers ranging from hundreds to up to 40,000 fighters ultimately expected to take part.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/some-syrian-veterans-ready-ukraine-fight-commanders-say-2022-03-20/|date=26 March 2022|title=Some Syrian veterans ready for Ukraine fight, commanders say |website=Reuters |last1=Al-Khalidi|first1=Suleiman|access-date=27 March 2022|archive-date=27 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327130414/https://www.reuters.com/world/some-syrian-veterans-ready-ukraine-fight-commanders-say-2022-03-20/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-volunteers-welcome-help-fight-against-ukrainian-forces-2022-03-11/ |date=26 March 2022 |title=Putin says Russia to use Middle East volunteer fighters |website=Reuters |last1=Faulconbridge|first1=Guy|access-date=27 March 2022|archive-date=27 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327043657/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-volunteers-welcome-help-fight-against-ukrainian-forces-2022-03-11/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=Jerusalem Post |url=https://www.jpost.com/international/article-701597 |date=26 March 2022|title=Syria to supply Russia with 40,000 mercenaries – Ukrainian Defense Min|access-date=27 March 2022|archive-date=27 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327024739/https://www.jpost.com/international/article-701597|url-status=live}}</ref> Wagner mercenaries are active in the [[Syrian civil war]] and [[Murder of Yevgeny Nuzhin#Legacy|sledgehammered a Syrian man]] to death.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Grisly Cult of the Wagner Group's Sledgehammer|url=https://theintercept.com/2023/02/02/wagner-group-violence-sledgehammer/|work= The Intercept|date=2 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://novayagazeta.ru/articles/2019/11/20/82805-golovorezy-21|title=Головорезы (21+)|date=20 November 2019|website=Новая газета – Novayagazeta.ru}}</ref><ref name="filmed">{{cite web |date=21 November 2019 |title=Man who filmed beheading of Syrian identified as Russian mercenary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/21/man-filmed-killing-torture-syrian-identified-russian-mercenary-wagner |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> On 8 November 2024, US President [[Joe Biden]] allowed American Private Military Contractors to deploy to Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/25/politics/biden-administration-american-military-contractors-ukraine/index.html|title=Biden administration moving towards allowing American military contractors to deploy to Ukraine &#124; CNN Politics|first=Natasha Bertrand, Oren|last=Liebermann|date=25 June 2024|website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2024/11/08/biden-allows-u-s-military-contractors-into-ukraine-00188537|title=Biden allows US military contractors into Ukraine|first=Jack|last=Detsch|date=8 November 2024|website=POLITICO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-us-contractors-weapons-maintenance/33195395.html|title=Pentagon To Allow U.S. Defense Contractors To Maintain Weapons In Ukraine, Reports Say|first=RFE/RL's Ukrainian|last=Service}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://meduza.io/en/news/2024/11/08/biden-lifts-ban-on-u-s-military-contractors-in-ukraine-but-not-for-combat|title=Biden lifts ban on U.S. military contractors in Ukraine, but not for combat|website=Meduza}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/11/11/bcfo-n11.html|title=White House sends military contractors to Ukraine|date=11 November 2024|website=World Socialist Web Site}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.turkiyetoday.com/world/pentagon-approves-deployment-of-us-defense-contractors-to-ukraine-76851/|title=Pentagon approves deployment of US defense contractors to Ukraine - Türkiye Today}}</ref> Per the [[United States Department of Defense]], these contractors will help Ukraine repair and maintain military equipment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/11/08/politics/biden-administration-american-military-contractors-deploy-ukraine/index.html|title=Biden administration to allow American military contractors to deploy to Ukraine for first time since Russia’s invasion &#124; CNN Politics|first=Natasha Bertrand, Haley Britzky, Oren|last=Liebermann|date=8 November 2024|website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/9/pentagon-allows-us-military-contractors-to-fix-weapons-in-ukraine|title=Pentagon allows US military contractors to fix weapons in Ukraine|website=Al Jazeera}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/en/americas/20241108-us-greenlights-deployment-of-military-contractors-to-fix-weapons-in-ukraine|title=US greenlights deployment of military contractors to fix weapons in Ukraine|date=8 November 2024|website=France 24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/pentagon-lifts-ban-contractors-inside-ukraine-fix-us-supplied-weapons-2024-11-08/|title=Exclusive: Pentagon lifts ban on contractors fixing U.S.-supplied weapons in Ukraine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2024/11/09/world-news/us-lifts-ban-on-contractors-repairing-weapons-in-ukraine/|title=US lifts ban on contractors repairing weapons in Ukraine|first=Katherine|last=Donlevy|date=9 November 2024}}</ref>