Editing Marco Polo (section)

=== Explaining omissions ===
Sceptics have long wondered whether Marco Polo wrote his book based on hearsay, with some pointing to omissions about noteworthy practices and structures of China as well as the lack of details on some places in his book. While Polo describes [[paper money]] and the burning of coal, he fails to mention the [[Great Wall of China]], [[tea]], [[Chinese characters]], [[chopstick]]s, or [[footbinding]].<ref>Frances Wood, ''[[Did Marco Polo Go to China?]]'' (London: Secker & Warburg; Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1995).</ref> His failure to note the presence of the Great Wall of China was first raised in the middle of the 17th century, and in the middle of the 18th century, it was suggested that he had never reached China.<ref name="haw1" />  Later scholars such as John W. Haeger argued that Marco Polo might not have visited Southern China, in view of the lack of details in his description of southern Chinese cities compared to northern ones, while [[Herbert Franke (sinologist)|Herbert Franke]] also raised the possibility that Marco Polo had not been to China at all, and wondered if he had based his accounts on Persian sources, in view of his use of Persian expressions.<ref name="haeger">{{cite journal |jstor=23497510|title= Marco Polo in China? Problems with Internal Evidence |first=John W. |last=Haeger|journal=Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies |volume= 14 |issue= 14 |date=1978|pages= 22–30 }}</ref><ref name="franke">{{cite journal |jstor=23881433|title=Sino-Western Contacts Under the Mongol Empire |first=Herbert |last=Franke |journal=Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume= 6 |date=1966| pages= 49–72}}</ref> This is taken further by [[Frances Wood]] who claimed in her 1995 book ''[[Did Marco Polo Go to China?]]'' that at best Polo never went farther east than Persia (modern Iran), and that there is nothing in ''The Book of Marvels'' about China that could not have been obtained by reading Persian books.<ref name="Morgan, D page 222">Morgan, D.O. "Marco Polo in China—Or Not" 221–225 from ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Volume 6, Issue # 2 July 1996 p. 222.</ref> Wood maintains that it is more probable that Polo went only to Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) and some of the Italian merchant colonies around the Black Sea, picking hearsay from those travellers who had been farther east.<ref name="Morgan, D page 222" />

Supporters of Polo's basic accuracy countered on the points raised by sceptics such as footbinding and the Great Wall of China. Historian [[Stephen G. Haw]] argued that the Great Walls were built to keep out northern invaders, whereas the ruling dynasty during Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders. They note that the Great Wall familiar to us today is a [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] structure built some two centuries after Marco Polo's travels; and that the [[Yuan dynasty|Mongol]] rulers whom Polo served controlled territories both north and south of today's wall, and would have had no reasons to maintain any fortifications that might have remained there from the earlier dynasties.<ref name=polo>{{citation |first=Stephen G. |last=Haw |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2006|isbn=978-0-415-34850-8 |title=Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan |series=Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA54 |pages=52–57}}</ref> Other Europeans who travelled to [[Khanbaliq]] during the Yuan dynasty, such as [[Giovanni de' Marignolli]] and [[Odoric of Pordenone]], said nothing about the wall either. The Muslim traveller [[Ibn Battuta]], who asked about the wall when he visited China during the Yuan dynasty, could find no one who either had seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that while ruins of the wall constructed in the earlier periods might have existed, they were not significant or noteworthy at that time.<ref name=polo />

Haw also argued that footbinding was not common even among Chinese during Polo's time and almost unknown among the Mongols. While the Italian missionary [[Odoric of Pordenone]] who visited [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] China mentioned footbinding (it is however unclear whether he was merely relaying something he had heard as his description is inaccurate),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iL2AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA196 |title=Women and the Family in Chinese History |first=Patricia|last= Ebrey |page=196|publisher=Routledge |isbn= 978-1-134-44293-5 |year=2003 }}</ref> no other foreign visitors to [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] China mentioned the practice, perhaps an indication that the footbinding was not widespread or was not practised in an extreme form at that time.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA55 |title=Marco Polo's China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan |first= Stephen G. |last=Haw |pages=55–56 |publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-134-27542-7|year=2006 }}</ref> Marco Polo himself noted (in the Toledo manuscript) the dainty walk of Chinese women who took very short steps.<ref name=polo /> It has also been noted by other scholars that many of the things not mentioned by Marco Polo such as tea and chopsticks were not mentioned by other travellers either.<ref name="Igor">{{cite web |author=de Rachewiltz |first=Igor |author-link=Igor de Rachewiltz |title=F. Wood's Did Marco Polo Go To China? A Critical Appraisal by I. de Rachewiltz |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/41883/1/Marcopolo.html |access-date=20 August 2022 |website=The Australian National University}}</ref>  Haw also pointed out that despite the few omissions, Marco Polo's account is more extensive, more accurate and more detailed than those of other foreign travellers to China in this period.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA63 |title=Marco Polo's China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan |first= Stephen G. |last=Haw |pages=65–66 |publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-134-27542-7|date=22 November 2006 }}</ref> Marco Polo even observed Chinese [[nautical]] [[List of Chinese inventions|inventions]] such as the [[watertight compartment]]s of [[Bulkhead (partition)|bulkhead partitions]] in [[Junk (ship)|Chinese ships]], knowledge of which he was keen to share with his fellow Venetians.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/westernpowerinas0000cott|url-access=registration|title=Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415–1999 |first=Arthur|last= Cotterell |page=[https://archive.org/details/westernpowerinas0000cott/page/9 9]|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn= 978-0-470-82489-4|date=4 August 2011 }}</ref>

In addition to Haw, other scholars have argued in favour of the established view that Polo was in China, in response to Wood's book.<ref name="Igor" /> The book has been criticised by figures including [[Igor de Rachewiltz]] (translator and annotator of ''[[The Secret History of the Mongols]]'') and Morris Rossabi (author of ''Kublai Khan: his life and times'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/pop/polo/mp_essay.htm|title=Mongols in World History &#124; Asia for Educators|website=afe.easia.columbia.edu}}</ref> The historian [[David Morgan (historian)|David Morgan]] points out basic errors made in Wood's book such as confusing the [[Liao dynasty]] with the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]], and he found no compelling evidence in the book that would convince him that Marco Polo did not go to China.<ref name="Morgan, D page 224">{{cite journal |jstor=25183182|author= Morgan, D. O. |title=Marco Polo in China-Or Not" 221–225 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume = 6|issue= 2 |date=July 1996 |page= 224|doi= 10.1017/S1356186300007203 |s2cid= 154625708 }}</ref> Haw also argues in his book ''Marco Polo's China'' that Marco's account is much more correct and accurate than has often been supposed and that it is extremely unlikely that he could have obtained all the information in his book from secondhand sources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.routledge.com/Marco-Polos-China-A-Venetian-in-the-Realm-of-Khubilai-Khan/Haw/p/book/9780415546003|title=Marco Polo's China: A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan|website=CRC Press}}</ref> Haw also criticizes Wood's approach to finding mention of Marco Polo in Chinese texts by contending that contemporaneous Europeans had little regard for using [[Surname#history|surnames]] and that a direct Chinese [[transliteration]] of the name "Marco" ignores the possibility of his taking on a [[Chinese name|Chinese]] or even [[Mongolian name|Mongol name]] with no similarity to his [[Christian name|Latin name]].<ref>Stephen G. Haw (2006), ''Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the Realm of Kublai Khan'', London and New York: Routledge, p. 173, {{ISBN|0-415-34850-1}}.</ref>

Also in reply to Wood, Jørgen Jensen recalled the meeting of Marco Polo and [[Pietro d'Abano]] in the late 13th century. During this meeting, Marco gave to Pietro details of the astronomical observations he had made on his journey. These observations are compatible with Marco's stay in China, [[Sumatra]] and the [[South China Sea]]<ref>J. Jensen, "The World's most diligent observer." Asiatische Studien 51.3 (1997): 719–728</ref> and are recorded in Pietro's book ''Conciliator Differentiarum'', but not in Marco's ''Book of Travels''.

Reviewing Haw's book, [[Peter Jackson (historian)|Peter Jackson]] (author of ''The Mongols and the West'') has said that Haw "must surely now have settled the controversy surrounding the historicity of Polo's visit to China".<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/stephen-g-haw-marco-polos-china-a-venetian-in-the-realm-of-khubilai-khan-routledge-studies-in-the-early-history-of-asia-vii-214-pp-london-and-new-york-routledge-2006-65-isbn-0-415-34850-1/E665C99EC913CE7D1AC8AF6128478182|title=Stephen G. Haw: Marco Polo's China. A Venetian in the Realm of Khubilai Khan. (Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia.) vii, 214 pp. London and New York: Routledge, 2006. £65. ISBN 0 415 34850 1.|first=Peter|last=Jackson|date=13 June 2007|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=70|issue=2|pages=438–440|via=Cambridge Core|doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000651}}</ref> Igor de Rachewiltz's review, which refutes Wood's points, concludes with a strongly-worded condemnation: "I regret to say that F. W.'s book falls short of the standard of scholarship that one would expect in a work of this kind. Her book can only be described as deceptive, both in relation to the author and to the public at large. Questions are posed that, in the majority of cases, have already been answered satisfactorily ... her attempt is unprofessional; she is poorly equipped in the basic tools of the trade, i.e., adequate linguistic competence and research methodology ... and her major arguments cannot withstand close scrutiny. Her conclusion fails to consider all the evidence supporting Marco Polo's credibility."<ref>Igor de Rachewiltz, "Marco Polo Went to China," ''Zentralasiatische Studien'' 27 (1997), pp. 34–92.</ref>