Editing Mangrove (section)

==Mangrove forests==
[[File:Mangrove.png|thumb|upright=2|Global distribution of mangrove forests, 2011<ref name="Giri2010" />]]
{{main|Mangrove forest}}

[[Mangrove forest]]s, also called ''mangrove swamps'' or ''mangals'', are found in tropical and subtropical [[tide|tidal]] areas. Areas where mangroves occur include [[estuary|estuaries]] and marine shorelines.<ref name=Mathias/>

The [[intertidal]] existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.<ref name=Friess/><ref name=Zimmer/>

At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.<ref name=Friess/><ref name=Zimmer/>

About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp,<ref name=Mathias>{{cite web  |author=Mathias, M. E. |title=Mangal (Mangrove). ''World Vegetation'' |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/worldvegetation/marinewetlands/mangal/index.html  |website=Botanical Garden, University of California at Los Angeles |publisher=Botgard.ucla.edu |access-date=8 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209010910/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/worldvegetation/marinewetlands/mangal/index.html |archive-date=9 February 2012}}</ref> though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, ''Rhizophora''. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine [[megafauna]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sievers|first1=M. |last2=Brown|first2=C. J.|last3=Tulloch|first3=V. J. D.|last4=Pearson|first4=R. M. |last5=Haig |first5=J. A. |last6=Turschwell|first6=M. P.|last7=Connolly|first7=R. M.|date=2019|title=The Role of Vegetated Coastal Wetlands for Marine Megafauna Conservation |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=34 |issue=9|pages=807–817|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.04.004|pmid=31126633 |bibcode=2019TEcoE..34..807S |hdl=10072/391960 |s2cid=164219103 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Mangroves.jpg|thumb|Mangrove roots above and below water]]
Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of [[Hypoxia (environmental)|low environmental oxygen]] levels, high [[salinity]], and frequent [[tidal flooding]]. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings.<ref name="Cannicci">{{cite journal |last1=Cannicci |first1=S. |last2=Fusi |first2=M. |last3=Cimó |first3=F. |last4=Dahdouh-Guebas |first4=F. |last5=Fratini |first5=S. |title=Interference competition as a key determinant for spatial distribution of mangrove crabs |journal=BMC Ecology |date=2018 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=8 |doi=10.1186/s12898-018-0164-1 |pmid=29448932 |pmc=5815208 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018BMCE...18....8C }}</ref>

[[File:Nipa palms.jpg|thumb|Nipa palms, ''[[Nypa fruticans]]'', the only palm species fully adapted to the mangrove biome]]
Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, [[Anoxic waters|anoxic]] sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of [[Heavy metals|heavy (trace) metals]] which [[colloidal particle]]s in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saenger |first1=P. |last2=McConchie |first2=D. |title=Heavy metals in mangroves: methodology, monitoring and management |journal=Envis Forest Bulletin |date=2004 |volume=4 |pages=52–62 |citeseerx=10.1.1.961.9649 }}</ref>

Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from [[erosion]], [[storm surge]] (especially during [[tropical cyclone]]s), and [[tsunami]]s.<ref name="Mazda-2">{{cite journal|last1=Mazda |first1=Y. |last2=Kobashi |first2=D. |last3=Okada |first3=S.|year=2005|title=Tidal-Scale Hydrodynamics within Mangrove Swamps |journal=Wetlands Ecology and Management |volume=13 |issue= 6 |pages=647–655 |doi=10.1007/s11273-005-0613-4 |bibcode=2005WetEM..13..647M |citeseerx=10.1.1.522.5345|s2cid=35322400}}</ref><ref name="Danielsen">{{cite journal |title=The Asian Tsunami: A Protective Role for Coastal Vegetation |doi=10.1126/science.1118387 |pmid=16254180 |journal=Science |volume=310 |issue=5748 |page=643 |year=2005 |last1=Danielsen |first1=F. |last2=Sørensen |first2=M. K. |last3=Olwig |first3=M. F. |last4=Selvam |first4=V. |last5=Parish |first5=F. |last6=Burgess |first6=N. D. |last7=Hiraishi |first7=T. |last8=Karunagaran |first8=V. M. |last9=Rasmussen |first9=M. S. |last10=Hansen |first10=L. B. |last11=Quarto |first11=A. |last12=Suryadiputra |first12=N. |s2cid=31945341 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Mangrove forest against dyke-break-induced tsunami on rapidly subsiding coasts |journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=1629–1638 |date=2016 |doi=10.5194/nhess-16-1629-2016 |last1=Takagi |first1=H. |last2=Mikami |first2=T. |last3=Fujii |first3=D. |last4=Esteban |first4=M. |last5=Kurobe |first5=S.|bibcode=2016NHESS..16.1629T |doi-access=free}}</ref> They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis.<ref>{{cite journal |title=How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent tsunami? |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.06.008 |pmid=15964259 |journal=Current Biology |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=R443–447 |year=2005 |last1=Dahdouh-Guebas |first1=F. |last2=Jayatissa |first2=L. P. |last3=Di Nitto |first3=D. |last4=Bosire |first4=J. O. |last5=Lo Seen |first5=D. |last6=Koedam |first6=N.|s2cid=8772526 |url=http://agritrop.cirad.fr/529549/|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy.<ref name=Massel>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/s0169-5983(98)00024-0 |title=Surface wave propagation in mangrove forests |journal=Fluid Dynamics Research |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=219 |year=1999 |last1=Massel |first1=S. R. |last2=Furukawa |first2=K. |last3=Brinkman |first3=R. M. |bibcode=1999FlDyR..24..219M|s2cid=122572658}}</ref> Likewise, they slow down tidal water so that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1023/A:1009949411068 |year=1997 |last1=Mazda |first1=Y. |journal=Mangroves and Salt Marshes |title=Drag force due to vegetation in mangrove swamps|volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=193 |last2=Wolanski |first2=E. |last3=King |first3=B. |last4=Sase |first4=A. |last5=Ohtsuka |first5=D. |last6=Magi |first6=M.|s2cid=126945589}}</ref> In this way, mangroves build their  environments.<ref name="Mazda-2" /> Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs,<ref name=Zimmer/> including national [[Biodiversity Action Plan|biodiversity action plan]]s.<ref name=Danielsen/>

The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms.<ref name=BOS>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00227-010-1588-0 |pmid=24391259 |pmc=3873073 |title=Ontogenetic habitat shift, population growth, and burrowing behavior of the Indo-Pacific beach star, ''Archaster typicus'' (Echinodermata; Asteroidea) |journal=Marine Biology |volume=158 |issue=3 |pages=639–648 |year=2010 |last1=Bos |first1=A. R. |last2=Gumanao |first2=G. S. |last3=Van Katwijk |first3=M. M. |last4=Mueller |first4=B. |last5=Saceda |first5=M. M. |last6=Tejada |first6=R. L.}}</ref> In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include [[algae]], [[barnacle]]s, [[oyster]]s, [[sea sponge|sponge]]s, and [[bryozoan]]s, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. [[Shrimp]]s and [[Thalassinidea|mud lobsters]] use the muddy bottoms as their home.<ref>''[[Encarta]] Encyclopedia 2005''. "Seashore", by [[Heidi Nepf]].</ref> [[Mangrove crab]]s eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00442-001-0847-7 |pmid=28547499 |bibcode=2002Oecol.131....1S |title=Paradoxical selective feeding on a low-nutrient diet: Why do mangrove crabs eat leaves? |journal=Oecologia |volume=131 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |year=2002 |last1=Skov |first1=M. W. |last2=Hartnoll |first2=R.G.|s2cid=23407273}}</ref> In at least some cases, the export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Abrantes, K. G. |author2=Johnston, R. |author3=Connolly, R. M. |author4=Sheaves, M. |date=2015 |title=Importance of Mangrove Carbon for Aquatic Food Webs in Wet–Dry Tropical Estuaries |journal=Estuaries and Coasts |volume=38 |issue=1|pages=383–399 |doi=10.1007/s12237-014-9817-2 |bibcode=2015EstCo..38..383A |hdl=10072/141734|s2cid=3957868|issn=1559-2731|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Mangrove forests contribute significantly to coastal ecosystems by fostering complex and diverse [[food web]]s. The intricate root systems of mangroves create a habitat conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms, crustaceans, and small fish, forming the foundational tiers of the food chain. This abundance of organisms serves as a critical food source for larger predators like birds, reptiles, and mammals within the ecosystem. Additionally, mangrove forests function as essential nurseries for many commercially important fish species, providing a sheltered environment rich in nutrients during their early life stages. The decomposition of leaves and organic matter in the water further enhances the nutrient content, supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In summary, mangrove forests play a crucial and unbiased role in sustaining biodiversity and ecological balance within coastal food webs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muro-Torres |first1=Victor M. |last2=Amezcua |first2=Felipe |last3=Soto-Jiménez |first3=Martin |last4=Balart |first4=Eduardo F. |last5=Serviere-Zaragoza |first5=Elisa |last6=Green |first6=Lucinda |last7=Rajnohova |first7=Jana |date=2020-11-05 |title=Primary Sources and Food Web Structure of a Tropical Wetland with High Density of Mangrove Forest |journal=Water |language=en |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=3105 |doi=10.3390/w12113105 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4441|hdl=1854/LU-01HV3XGJPZJE3Z72394VV0MRJB |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Larger marine organisms benefit from the habitat as a nursery for their offspring. [[Lemon shark]]s depend on mangrove creeks to give birth to their pups. The ecosystem provides little competition and minimizes threats of [[predation]] to juvenile lemon sharks as they use the cover of mangroves to practice hunting before entering the food web of the ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Newman |first1=Sp |last2=Handy |first2=Rd |last3=Gruber |first3=Sh |date=2010-01-05 |title=Diet and prey preference of juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris |url=http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v398/p221-234/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=398 |pages=221–234 |doi=10.3354/meps08334 |bibcode=2010MEPS..398..221N |issn=0171-8630}}</ref>

Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=S. K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuneDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 |title=Soil Salinity Management in Agriculture: Technological Advances and Applications |last2=Goyal |first2=M. R. |date=2017|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-34177-4}}</ref>

The mangrove food chain extends beyond the marine ecosystem. Coastal bird species inhabit the tidal ecosystems feeding off small marine organisms and wetland insects. Common bird families found in mangroves around the world are [[egret]]s, [[kingfisher]]s, [[heron]]s, and [[hornbill]]s, among many others dependent on ecological range.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mohd-Taib |first1=Farah Shafawati |last2=Mohd-Saleh |first2=Wardah |last3=Asyikha |first3=Rosha |last4=Mansor |first4=Mohammad Saiful |last5=Ahmad-Mustapha |first5=Muzzneena |last6=Mustafa-Bakray |first6=Nur Aqilah |last7=Mod-Husin |first7=Shahril |last8=Md-Shukor |first8=Aisah |last9=Amat-Darbis |first9=Nurul Darsani |last10=Sulaiman |first10=Norela |date=June 2020 |title=Effects of anthropogenic disturbance on the species assemblages of birds in the back mangrove forests |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11273-020-09726-z |journal=Wetlands Ecology and Management |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=479–494 |doi=10.1007/s11273-020-09726-z |bibcode=2020WetEM..28..479M |s2cid=218484236 |issn=0923-4861}}</ref> Bird predation plays a key role in maintaining prey species along coastlines and within mangrove ecosystems.

Mangrove forests can decay into [[peat]] deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of [[termite]]s. It becomes peat in good [[Geochemistry|geochemical]], sedimentary, and [[Tectonics|tectonic]] conditions.<ref name=Vane>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ggge.20194 |title=Degradation of mangrove tissues by arboreal termites (''Nasutitermes acajutlae'') and their role in the mangrove C cycle (Puerto Rico): Chemical characterization and organic matter provenance using bulk δ13C, C/N, alkaline CuO oxidation-GC/MS, and solid-state |journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems |volume=14 |issue=8 |page=3176 |year=2013 |last1=Vane |first1=C. H. |last2=Kim |first2=A. W. |last3=Moss-Hayes |first3=V. |last4=Snape |first4=C. E. |last5=Diaz |first5=M. C. |last6=Khan |first6=N. S. |last7=Engelhart |first7=S. E. |last8=Horton |first8=B. P. |bibcode=2013GGG....14.3176V |doi-access=free}}</ref> The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. In [[Puerto Rico]], the [[Rhizophora mangle|red]], [[Laguncularia racemosa|white]], and [[Avicennia germinans|black]] mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the [[Carbon|carbon content]] varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots).<ref name=Vane/>

In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves.<ref name=Vane /> Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems.<ref name=Vane /> Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores.<ref name="versteegh">{{cite journal |last1=Versteegh |first1=G.J. |display-authors=et al. |year=2004 |title=Taraxerol and Rhizophora pollen as proxies for tracking past mangrove ecosystems |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=411–22 |doi=10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00456-3 |bibcode=2004GeCoA..68..411V}}</ref> However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment due to the tidal flushing of mangrove forests. Termites play an important role in the formation of peat from mangrove materials.<ref name=Vane/> They process fallen [[leaf litter]], root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests, and stabilise the chemistry of this peat that represents approximately 2% of above ground carbon storage in mangroves. As the nests are buried over time this carbon is stored in the sediment and the carbon cycle continues.<ref name=Vane/>

Mangroves are an important source of [[blue carbon]]. Globally, mangroves stored {{Cvt|4.19|Gt|lb|abbr=unit}} of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of {{Cvt|0.316996250|Gt|lbs}} of emissions of [[carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere]].<ref name=auto>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamilton |first1=S. E. |last2=Friess |first2=D. A. |date=2018 |title=Global carbon stocks and potential emissions due to mangrove deforestation from 2000 to 2012 |journal=Nature Climate Change |volume=8 |issue=3|pages=240–244 |doi=10.1038/s41558-018-0090-4 |bibcode=2018NatCC...8..240H|arxiv=1611.00307 |s2cid=89785740}}</ref>

Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hochard|first1=J. P. |last2=Hamilton |first2=S. |last3=Barbier |first3=E. B.|date=2019 |title=Mangroves shelter coastal economic activity from cyclones |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=116|issue=25|pages=12232–12237 |doi-access=free |doi=10.1073/pnas.1820067116|pmid=31160457 |pmc=6589649|bibcode=2019PNAS..11612232H}}</ref>