Editing Lewis Milestone (section)

==World War II Hollywood propaganda: 1942–1945==

Milestone's reputation as the director of ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1930), though an emphatically pacifist and anti-war film, positioned him as an asset in Hollywood's "patriotic and profitable" production of anti-fascist war films.<ref>Silver, 2010: "World War II provided the opportunity to rejuvenate the reputation he had established with All Quiet."</ref> Film curator Charles Silver noted Milestone's "facility for capturing battle's intrinsic spectacle{{nbsp}}... there is an inevitable pageantry to cinematic warfare that works against whatever pacifist intentions the filmmaker may have". Milestone said, "how can you make a pacifist film without showing the violence of war?"<ref>Silver, 2010: Silver quotes [[Andrew Sarris|Sarris]]'s observation that in Milestone's All Quiet on the Western Front'' "the orgasmic violence of war is celebrated as much as it is condemned."<br />Canham, 1974 p. 104: "''All Quiet on the Western Front'' contains as many scenes of violence as any of his other war films; as Milestone said in an interview in Action (July–August 1972): 'How can you make a pacifist film without showing the violence of war?'"</ref> Responding to the "general climate of opinion in wartime Hollywood", Milestone abandoned any reservations about his commitments to the US war effort and offered his services to the film industry's propaganda units.<ref>Higham and Greenberg, 1968 p. 96: "Although the U.S. did not officially enter WWII until 1941, Hollywood was well aware of what was happening in Europe"<br />Silver, 2010: "casting a cold eye on warfare{{nbsp}}... was a problem for Lewis Milestone [in 1930 and All Quiet on the Western Front], and it remains a problem today [for filmmakers]."<br />Millichap, 1981 pp. 107–108: "climate of opinion". See here for "the transformation of his attitude toward war". And during the Second World War "Milestone's efforts [during WWII] tend more toward propaganda than art" and re: Hollywood's and Milestone's shift to anti-Nazi war films. And Milestone "a liberal intellectual{{nbsp}}... viewed the rise of totalitarian Fascism with considerable alarm{{nbsp}}... after Pearl Harbor{{nbsp}}... [Milestone] became convinced that armed resistance to Fascism was the only course of action{{nbsp}}... [and] he placed his art at the service of an [anti-fascist] ideal"</ref>

=== ''Our Russian Front'' (1942) ===
''[[Our Russian Front]]'' is a 1942 war documentary assembled from {{Cvt|15000|feet}} of newsreel footage taken on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Russian front]] by Soviet citizen-journalists during the [[Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union]] in 1941. In collaboration with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]], working with The Government Film Service in 1940, Milestone depicted the struggle of Russian villagers to resist the German invasion. Actor [[Walter Huston]] narrated the documentary and composer [[Dimitri Tiomkin]] provided the film score.<ref>Millichap, 1981 pp. 108&ndash;109<br />Canham, 1974 p. 91<br />Barson, 2020: "Milestone collaborated with Dutch director Joris Ivens on Our Russian Front (1942), a documentary (narrated by Walter Huston)"</ref><ref>Silver, 2010: "World War II provided the opportunity to rejuvenate the reputation he had established with All Quiet, but ''Edge of Darkness'', ''The North Star'', ''The Purple Heart'', ''A Walk in the Sun'', ''Arch of Triumph'' (another adaptation of a novel by ''All Quiet'' author Erich Maria Remarque), and, later, ''Halls of Montezuma'' only intermittently tipped the scales in Milestone's favor."</ref>

=== ''Edge of Darkness'' (1943) ===
Seventeen years after directing  ''[[The Caveman (1926 film)|The Caveman]]'' (1926) for [[Warner Bros.|Warner Brothers]], Milestone returned to Warner in a one-film contract.<ref>Millichap, 1981 pp. 30&ndash;31</ref>  ''[[Edge of Darkness (1943 film)|Edge of Darkness]]'' is the first of three successful films he made in collaboration with screenwriter [[Robert Rossen]]. The film stars [[Errol Flynn]] and [[Ann Sheridan]] as Norwegian freedom fighters, and [[Helmut Dantine]] as a sociopathic Nazi commandant;<ref>Higham and Greenberg, 1968 p. 100: "[[New York accent|Bronx]] accented [European] patriots" and p. 104: "the too frequent casting of Americans as Europeans"<br />Millichap, 1981 p. 109: Milestone described the cast as "extremely mixed" and p. 110: Millichap reports "difficulties of characterization and casting" and other than [[Walter Huston]] "the rest of the cast is eminently forgettable" and "severe personal problems" that plagued cast members. And "New York accents"<br />Erickson, 2010 TCM: "The movie would probably have been better without any recognizable stars.<br />Millichap, 1981 p. 115: "weighed down by its single-minded theme"</ref> it signals a change in Milestone's professional and personal attitude toward his war films.<ref>Erickson, 2010. TCM: "Edge of Darkness adopts an entirely different approach to laud the fierce resistance of proud Norwegian patriots. Robert Rossen's unsubtle, humorless screenplay takes every Nazi-imposed hardship in deadly earnest"</ref> Milestone said:

{{blockquote |''Edge of Darkness'' has done away with disillusionment. We know the enemy we are fighting and we are facing the stern realities of the present war. The moral of ''Edge of Darkness'' is "United we stand, divided we fall." That is the great lesson of our time and the keystone for victory for the democratic cause.<ref>Millichap, 1981 p. 109: See footnote, quoted from an interview with Ezra Goodman in ''[[Theatre Arts Magazine]]'', February, 1943.</ref>}}

''Edge of Darkness'', a melodramatic film fantasy, is set in a remote Norwegian village whose inhabitants are brutalized by Nazi occupiers, inspiring resistance among the townspeople, who rebel and eliminate the Nazi occupiers. Milestone employs an "anti-suspense" device that shows the carnage suffered by the inhabitants then reveals the story in flashback. Milestone's "thematic oversimplification" reflected Hollywood's penchant for melodramatic propaganda.<ref>Higham and Greenberg, 1968 p. 104<br />Erickson, 2010. TCM: "The intent of ''Edge of Darkness'' is to shock the audience with oppressive Nazi measures{{nbsp}}.... Stoic solidarity is the only response; as the screenplay emphasizes the need for a communal vengeance" and '"The revolt of the townspeople is very much a fantasy."<br />Millichap, 1981 p. 109<br />Canham, 1974 p. 91: The film uses "a formula of the Hollywood propaganda movie"</ref>

=== ''The North Star'' (1943) ===
Milestone's next project was the propaganda film ''[[The North Star (1943 film)|The North Star]]'', which dramatizes the damage caused by the [[German invasion of the Soviet Union]] to the inhabitants of a Ukrainian farming collective. US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dispatched [[Lowell Mellett]], chief of the Bureau of Motion Pictures of the [[United States Office of War Information|Office of War Information]] to enlist producer [[Sam Goldwyn]] to make a film celebrating America's wartime alliance with Russia. Milestone's production staff included playwright-screenwriter [[Lillian Hellman]], cinematographer [[James Wong Howe]], set designer [[William Cameron Menzies]], composer [[Aaron Copland]], lyricist [[Ira Gershwin]] and a competent cast.<ref>Passafiume, 2009. TCM: "Celebrated cinematographer James Wong Howe would be behind the camera, and Aaron Copland and Ira Gershwin would contribute the music and lyrics to several folk songs for the film{{nbsp}}... Lillian Hellman went to work on the screenplay" and "Goldwyn received a message from President Roosevelt through Lowell Mellett, the chief of the Bureau of Motion Pictures of the Office of War Information{{nbsp}}... It would be a portrayal designed to gather sympathy for the Russian people and strengthen American support for the U.S. government's alliance with the Soviet Union"<br />Hoberman, 2014: "lavish Samuel Goldwyn production"<br />Cojoc, 2013 pp. 93&ndash;95: "the American's perceptions of the Soviet Union had to be shaped overnight so that [[FDR]] could receive popular support for entering the war on the Soviet Union's side. a responsibility for such a task was [placed on] The Office of War Information."<br />Millichap, 1981 p. 115: "the production credits of The North Star are impressive". And p. 124: Millichap list James Wong Howe, William Cameron Menzies, and Aaron Copland. And "the cast does well enough with what it has [in terms of script]" and "Goldwyn bankrolled a lavish production"</ref><ref>Murphy, 1999. p. 16: The North Star was made "at the request of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] with the conscious aim winning the support of the American public for its wartime ally, the Soviet Union."</ref>

Hellman's script and Milestone's cinematic compositions establish the bucolic settings and social unity that characterize the collective's inhabitants. Milestone uses a tracking shot to follow the aged comic figure Karp ([[Walter Brennan]]) as he rides his cart through the village, a device Milestone used to introduce the film's key characters. An extended sequence portrays the villagers celebrating the harvest with food, song and dance, resembling an ethnic [[operetta]]. Milestone used an overhead camera to record the circular symmetry of the happy revelers.<ref>Millichap, 1981 pp. 118&ndash;119: "lovable old coot [Brennan's Karp]" and "Here the operetta analogy takes hold{{nbsp}}... singing and dancing{{nbsp}}... reduces the major characters to fugitives from a musical comedy [and] makes no sense in terms of plot{{nbsp}}... does much to create the inanity that finally destroys the film."</ref><ref>Hoberman, 2014: "The peasants were played, without [adopting Russian] accents, by{{nbsp}}... [[all-American]] types: [[Dana Andrews]], [[Anne Baxter]], [[Dean Jagger]]{{nbsp}}... [[Walter Brennan]]{{nbsp}}... appeared as semi-comic stock characters with [[Walter Huston]], as the village doctor, supplying the sort of moral authority{{nbsp}}.... The chief villains were Erich von Stroheim (once billed as The Man You Love to Hate) and [[Martin Kosleck]]"</ref><ref>Hoberman, 2014: "its idealization of Soviet life, notably the lengthy village celebration choreographed by the Russian ballet master [[David Lichine]], that suggests [the Hollywood musical] [[Oklahoma! (film)|Oklahoma]]."</ref> Milestone displays his "technical mastery" as villagers discern the approach of German bombers. Portions of this sequence resemble documentary war footage, recalling Milestone's work in ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1930) and [[Joris Ivens]] ''[[The Spanish Earth]]'' (1937).<ref>Millichap, 1981 pp. 119&ndash;120: Milestone exhibits "admirable technical mastery" in the first bombing sequence{{nbsp}}... momentarily recalls the power of All Quiet" and p. 120: "the power of documentary [as in] Joris Ivens's The Spanish Earth"<br />Canham, 1974 p. 93: "Milestone's professionalism transcends his material"</ref>

''The North Star'' received positive reviews from the mainstream press, and only [[William Randolph Hearst|Hearst]]-owned papers interpreted the film's pro-Russian themes as pro-Communist propaganda. The [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|Academy of Arts and Sciences]] nominated ''The North Star'' for Academy Awards for Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Special Effects, Best Musical Score, Best Sound and Best Original Screenplay. The film was largely ignored at the box office.<ref>Hoberman, 2014: ''The North Star'' "received near universal acclaim when it opened in New York at two Broadway theaters, less than a month after the Red Army liberated Kiev{{nbsp}}... [numerous dailies including] [[Life magazine]] named The North Star the movie of the year{{nbsp}}... only the two [[William Randolph Hearst|Hearst]] papers were critical, denouncing the movie as pro-Soviet propaganda."</ref><ref>Cojoc, 2013 pp. 93&ndash;95: "''Life'' magazine (1943) called it 'an eloquent tone poem&nbsp;... a document showing how the people fight and die" [while] the Hearst Press condemned it as communist propaganda"<br />Passafiume, 2009. TCM: Hearst papers "made the outrageous suggestion that the film was not only Red propaganda but Nazi propaganda" and "positive reviews did little to help The North Star, which ultimately fizzled at the box office"</ref>

In the [[Cold War (1947–1953)|post-war years]], Sam Goldwyn's ''The North Star'', Warner Brothers' ''[[Mission to Moscow]]'' (1943) and [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|M-G-M]]'s ''[[Song of Russia]]'' (1944) came under scrutiny by the anti-communist [[House Un-American Activities Committee]].<ref>Millichap, 1981 pp. 116–117: Films produced after the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|Hitler–Stalin pact]] and Russia joined the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Powers]] "were to haunt their creators in the McCarthy era, when various [[McCarthyism|witch hunters]] would try to sniff out any sympathy with Communism. In most cases, this romanticizing of the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] seems more commercially than politically motivated. The mass media, somewhat in response to government pressure, portrayed all our allies as good guys, the Soviets included."</ref><ref>Barson, 2020: "Lillian Hellman's script gave the picture a political tone that would land the filmmakers in trouble with the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) just a few years later."</ref>

In 1957, ''The North Star'' was reissued as ''Armored Attack'' in a heavily edited form; sequences that celebrate life under the Stalinist regime were removed. The setting is represented as Hungary during its [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|1956 uprising]] with a voice-over condemning communism.<ref>Passafiume, 2009. TCM: "Later in 1957 with the burgeoning of the cold war and McCarthyism, ''The North Star'' was completely re-cut to air on television after being singled out by the House Un-American Activities Committee as being pro-Communist. All sympathetic Soviet references were completely removed, a narrator was added warning against the 'menace of Communism,' the location was changed from Russia to Hungary, and a new title was given to the film: ''Armored Attack''"</ref>

=== ''The Purple Heart'' (1944) ===
''[[The Purple Heart]]'' (1944), which is set in the [[Pacific War]], is about captured American airmen who are prosecuted by [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] with violating the [[Geneva Conventions]] by participating in the July 18, 1942, [[Doolittle Raid]] over Japan by [[North American B-25 Mitchell|B-25 bombers]].<ref>Canham, 1974 p. 93: "another studio property{{nbsp}}... marred by jingoistic propaganda inserts" and "The film demonstrates "Milestone's attitude toward war as it indicates a change in heart from his pacifist position of All Quiet on the Western Front."<br />Millichap, 1981 p. 124</ref>

The film is based on a real-life incident. Milestone's technical skill in presenting the airmen's ordeal was potent propaganda but it risked rationalizing the US bombing and anti-Japanese jingoism. The [[Purple Heart]] award which the captured men are ultimately bestowed is earned through wounds inflicted by torture to extract military secrets and not through combat.<ref>Canham, 1974 p. 93: "another studio property{{nbsp}}... marred by jingoistic propaganda inserts" and "the ever prowling camera increases the tension while the men wait and discuss their situation, and personal reaction to torture."<br />Millichap, 1981 p. 128: "the simplistic identification of all good with America, all evil with Japan, ultimate rendered the film both false and dangerous"</ref> According to Millichap (1981), it is a cinematically superior war film; Milestone said of his commitment to supply propaganda for the American war effort: "We didn't hesitate to make this kind of film during the war".<ref>Millichap, 1981 p. 125: "The emotional overkill proves to be the film's major fault" and p. 128: "The Purple Heart remains the most successful of Milestone's World War II in a purely technical sense; it is both effective entertainment and propaganda, but it is finally bad art" and "we didn't hesitate"<br />Canham, 1974 p. 94: See here for cameraman [[Arthur Miller (cinematographer)|Arthur Miller]]'s "crisp, clearly defined, high-key images for court scenes [and] low-key imagery for flashbacks"</ref>

=== ''Guest in the House'' (1944) ===
Milestone's next project, the [[United Artists]] production ''[[Guest in the House]]'', is a psychological thriller in the style of [[Alfred Hitchcock]]. Milestone was removed from the project when he underwent an emergency [[appendectomy]] during filming. Milestone contributed some scenes but [[John Brahm]] was credited with directing the film, which prepared [[Anne Baxter]] for her starring role in [[Joseph L. Mankiewicz]]'s 1950 feature ''[[All About Eve]]''.<ref>Canham, 1974 pp. 97, 113: "Milestone shared credit for some work on Guest in the House (1944), credited to director [[John Brahm]] which dealt with the evil influence of an apparently innocent but sick young lady (Anne Baxter in a dress rehearsal for her outstanding performance in [[Joseph L. Mankiewicz]]'s [[All About Eve]] (year)."</ref><ref>Millichap, 1981 pp. 128&ndash;129: "his appendix ruptured" during filming and had it removed.</ref>

=== ''A Walk in the Sun'' (1945) ===
Milestone's second collaboration with screenwriter [[Robert Rossen]] ''[[A Walk in the Sun (1945 film)|A Walk in the Sun]]'' (1945) is based on [[Harry Joe Brown]]'s 1944 eponymous novel. Milestone invested $30,000 of his own savings, a measure of his enthusiasm for the novel and its cinematic potential.<ref>Millichap, 1981 p. 130: "the film was another labor of love" and "the book was my script" and pp. 130&ndash;131: "Rossen and Milestone relied heavily on [Brown's] novel" and "Milestone realized the work in strong visual terms"</ref> ''A Walk in the Sun'' takes place during the 1943 [[Allied invasion of Italy]]; a platoon of American soldiers are tasked with advancing inland {{convert|6|miles|abbr=out|spell=in}} from [[Salerno]] to take a German-held bridge and farmhouse.<ref>Barson, 2020: "A Walk in the Sun (1945) was a stylistically adventurous war drama, adapted by Robert Rossen from the novel by Harry Brown. The film focuses almost entirely on the states of mind of several soldiers (Andrews, Conte, and John Ireland) as they try to take a Nazi-held farmhouse in Italy."</ref> Milestone's perspective on war as depicted in ''A Walk in the Sun'' differs with that of ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', a moving indictment of war.<ref>Canham, 1974 p. 96: The moral outlook of the soldiers "imply a structural and moral change by [the characters] tacit acceptance of the conditions of war."</ref> According to biographer Joseph Millichap:

{{blockquote| ''All Quiet on the Western Front'', both the novel and the film, used the microcosm of one platoon to make a major thematic statement about the macrocosm of war. ''A Walk in the Sun''{{'}}s thematic statement is muted by the demands of propaganda and the studio system in the film.<ref>Millichap, 1981 p. 131</ref>}}

According to Millichap (1981), despite these limitations, Milestone avoided the "set hero and mock heroics" typical of Hollywood war movies, allowing for a measure of genuine realism reminiscent of his 1930 masterwork [''All Quiet on the Western Front'']. Milestone's trademark handling of tracking shots is evident in the action scenes.<ref>Millichap, 1981 p. 130: "realistically portrays the effects of war" on combat soldiers. And p. 132: Milestone "avoids melodramatic and cliches" and All Quiet "his earlier masterpiece"<br />Canham, 1974 pp. 95&ndash;96: The film "synthesized his reappraisal of men in war. The plot was sparse, but tightly constructed in a series of episodes (all containing underlying melancholia). The dialogue was deliberately stylized: repetition, catch phrases and obsessional figures produced as effect of blank verse, the rhythm of which heightened the sense of fear and isolation"<br />Barson, 2020: "The effect is closer to the antiwar message of ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' than to the gung-ho heroics of most World War II pictures."<br />Steffen, 2007 TCM: "the cinematographer Russell Harlan handles ''A Walk in the Sun'' with great skill{{nbsp}}... Also striking is Milestone's frequent use of lateral tracking shots during the combat scenes, directly recalling ''All Quiet on the Western Front''.</ref>