Editing Julius Caesar (section)

=== Italy, Africa, and Spain ===
Caesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, as {{lang|la|[[magister equitum]]}}, in charge. His rule was unpopular: [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella (consul 44 BC)|Publius Cornelius Dolabella]], serving as plebeian tribune in 47&nbsp;BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africa<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=435|ps=, noting "an epic march through the desert from Cyrenaica to the province of Africa", citing [[Lucan]] ''[[Pharsalia]]'', 9.}}</ref> and there [[Metellus Scipio]] was in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied with [[Juba II|Juba]] of [[Numidia]]; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=435|ps=. Rawson also notes claims – {{harvnb|Dio|loc=42.56.4}} – that the republicans were planning a naval invasion of Italy.}}</ref>

Caesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violence<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=435 n. 58}}, citing {{harvnb|Suet. ''Iul.''|loc=70}}.</ref> before overseeing the election of magistrates for 47&nbsp;BC – Italy had been ruled by Caesar's authoritarian subordinates with no ordinary consuls, praetors, etc until his return in September{{sfn|Broughton|1952|p=286, noting the two consuls ([[Quintus Fufius Calenus|Quintus Fufius]] and [[Publius Vatinius]]) were elected in September per {{harvnb|Dio|loc=42.55.4}}. }} – and also those for 46&nbsp;BC. Caesar would serve with [[Lepidus]] as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|p=435}} Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated by [[Titus Labienus]] at [[Battle of Ruspina|Ruspina]] on 4 January 46&nbsp;BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|pp=435–36}} After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded at [[Thapsus]]. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46&nbsp;BC, starting a [[Battle of Thapsus|battle]]; they then won it and massacred the republican forces [[No quarter|without quarter]]. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=436|ps=, citing {{harvnb|Plut. ''Cat. Min.''|loc=58–70}}}}; see also {{harvnb|Plut. ''Caes.''|loc=52–54}}.</ref> Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter.{{sfnm|Rawson|1994a|1p=436|Boatwright|2004|2p=253}} Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|p=436}}

Caesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|p=436}} According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=436|ps=, citing {{harvnb|App. ''BCiv.''|loc=2.101–2}}.}}</ref> The soldiers were each given 24,000 [[sesterces]] (a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge as {{lang|la|[[magister equitum]]}}.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|pp=436–37}}

At a bloody battle at [[Battle of Munda|Munda]] on 17 March 45&nbsp;BC, Caesar narrowly found victory;<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=436|ps=, citing {{harvnb|Plut. ''Caes.''|loc=56}}.}}</ref> his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|p=437}} Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons, [[Sextus Pompey|Sextus]], escaped, the war was effectively over.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994a|p=436|ps=, noting that Sextus fomented a momentary rebellion and that [[Quintus Caecilius Bassus]] led a revolt in Syria which continued until after Caesar's death in 44&nbsp;BC.}}</ref> Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans.{{sfn|Rawson|1994a|p=437}} By this point he had started [[Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire|preparations for war]] on the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] to avenge Crassus' death at [[Battle of Carrhae|Carrhae]] in 53&nbsp;BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44&nbsp;BC.{{sfnm|Rawson|1994a|1pp=437–38|Boatwright|2004|2pp=253–54}}