Editing Isocyanate (section)

=== Hazard minimization ===
{{See also|Hierarchy of hazard controls}}

Industrial science attempts to minimize the hazards of isocyanates through multiple techniques.  The EPA has sponsored ongoing research on polyurethane production without isocyanates.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/finding-a-substitute-for-methyl-isocyanate/5600.article |title=Finding a substitute for methyl isocyanate |work=Chemistry World |access-date=2018-11-21 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/10482/report/F |title=Final Report {{!}} Isocyanate-Free Polyurethane Coatings {{!}} Research Project Database {{!}} Grantee Research Project {{!}} ORD {{!}} US EPA |website=cfpub.epa.gov |language=en |access-date=2018-12-07}}</ref>  Where isocyanates are unavoidable but interchangeable, substituting a less hazardous isocyanate may control hazards.  Ventilation and automation can also minimizes worker exposure to the isocyanates used.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/healthrisks/hazardous-substances/isocyanates.htm |title=Isocyanates – Controlling hazardous substances – Managing occupational health risks in construction |website=www.hse.gov.uk |language=en-GB |access-date=2018-11-21}}</ref>  

If human workers must enter isocyanate-contaminated regions, [[personal protective equipment]] (PPE) can reduce their intake.  In general, workers wear eye protection<ref name="auto"/> and gloves and coveralls to reduce dermal exposure<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ceballos |first1=Diana |last2=Reeb-Whitaker |first2=Carolyn |last3=Glazer |first3=Patricia |last4=Murphy-Robinson |first4=Helen |last5=Yost |first5=Michael |date=2014-03-28 |title=Understanding Factors That Influence Protective Glove Use Among Automotive Spray Painters |journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene |language=en |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=306–313 |doi=10.1080/15459624.2013.862592 |issn=1545-9624 |pmc=5514320 |pmid=24215135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://medicine.yale.edu/intmed/prep/worker/protection/gloves.aspx |title=Chemical Resistant Gloves > Painters and Repairers Education Program {{!}} Internal Medicine |publisher=Yale School of Medicine |website=medicine.yale.edu |language=en |access-date=2018-11-21 |archive-date=2017-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123013505/http://medicine.yale.edu/intmed/prep/worker/protection/gloves.aspx  }}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://polyurethane.americanchemistry.com/Resources-and-Document-Library/Guidance-for-the-Selection-of-Protective-Clothing-for-MDI-Users.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809061230/http://polyurethane.americanchemistry.com/Resources-and-Document-Library/Guidance-for-the-Selection-of-Protective-Clothing-for-MDI-Users.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-09 |url-status=live |title=Guidance for Selection of Protective Clothing for MDI Users |last=American Chemistry Council |access-date=2018-11-21}}</ref>  For some autobody paint and [[Automotive paint|clear-coat]] spraying applications, a full-face mask is required.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> 

The US [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) requires frequent training to ensure isocyanate hazards are appropriately minimized.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/isocyanates/additionalinformation.html |title=Safety and Health Topics {{!}} Isocyanates – Additional Resources |publisher=Occupational Safety and Health Administration |website=www.osha.gov |language=en-us |access-date=2018-11-21}}</ref>  Moreover, OSHA requires standardized isocyanate concentration measurements to avoid violating [[occupational exposure limit]]s. In the case of MDI, OSHA expects sampling with glass-fiber filters at standard air flow rates, and then liquid chromatography.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/organic/org047/org047.html |title=Sampling and Analytical Methods {{!}} Methylene Bisphenyl Isocyanate (MDI) – (Organic Method #047) |publisher=Occupational Safety and Health Administration |website=www.osha.gov |language=en-us |access-date=2018-11-22}}</ref>

Combined industrial hygiene and medical surveillance can significantly reduce occupational [[asthma]] incidence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tarlo |first1=S. M. |last2=Liss |first2=G. M. |last3=Yeung |first3=K. S. |date=2002-01-01 |title=Changes in rates and severity of compensation claims for asthma due to diisocyanates: a possible effect of medical surveillance measures |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |language=en |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=58–62 |doi=10.1136/oem.59.1.58 |issn=1351-0711 |pmc=1740212 |pmid=11836470}}</ref>  Biological tests exist to identify isocyanate exposure;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Jimmy |last2=Cantrell |first2=Phillip |last3=Nand |first3=Aklesh |date=2017-07-29 |title=Comprehensive Biological Monitoring to Assess Isocyanates and Solvents Exposure in the NSW Australia Motor Vehicle Repair Industry |journal=Annals of Work Exposures and Health |language=en |volume=61 |issue=8 |pages=1015–1023 |doi=10.1093/annweh/wxx064 |pmid=29028250 |s2cid=2072874 |issn=2398-7308}}</ref> the [[US Navy]] uses regular pulmonary function testing and screening questionnaires.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |url=https://www.public.navy.mil/surfor/Documents/6260_NMCPHC_TM.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208074252/http://www.public.navy.mil/surfor/Documents/6260_NMCPHC_TM.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-08 |url-status=dead |title=MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE PROCEDURES MANUAL AND MEDICAL MATRIX (EDITION 11) |publisher=Navy And Marine Corps Public Health Center |access-date=2018-11-21}}</ref>

[[Emergency management]] is a complex process of preparation and should be considered in a setting where a release of bulk chemicals may threaten the well-being of the public.  In the [[Bhopal disaster]], an uncontrolled MIC release killed thousands, affected hundreds of thousands more, and spurred the development of modern disaster preparation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rose |first1=Dale A. |last2=Murthy |first2=Shivani |last3=Brooks |first3=Jennifer |last4=Bryant |first4=Jeffrey |date=2017-09-11 |title=The Evolution of Public Health Emergency Management as a Field of Practice |journal=American Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=107 |issue=S2 |pages=S126–S133 |doi=10.2105/ajph.2017.303947 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=5594387 |pmid=28892444}}</ref> 

==== Occupational exposure limits ====
Exposure limits can be expressed as ceiling limits, a maximal value, short-term exposure limits (STEL), a 15-minute exposure limit or an 8-hour time-weighted average limit (TWA). Below is a sampling, not exhaustive, as less common isocyanates also have specific limits within the United States, and in some regions there are limits on total isocyanate, which recognizes some of the uncertainty regarding the safety of mixtures of chemicals as compared to pure chemical exposures. For example, while there is no OEL for HDI, NIOSH has a REL of 5&nbsp;ppb for an 8-hour TWA and a ceiling limit of 20&nbsp;ppb, consistent with the recommendations for MDI.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0320.html |title=CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Hexamethylene diisocyanate |website=www.cdc.gov |access-date=2018-12-08}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Methylene bisphenyl isocyanate (MDI)
! Organization (region)
! Standard
! Value
|-
| OSHA (USA)
| Ceiling limit
| 20&nbsp;ppb<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.1000TABLEZ1 |title=1910.1000 TABLE Z-1 Limits for Air Contaminants |publisher=Occupational Safety and Health Administration |website=www.osha.gov |language=en |access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref>
|-
| NIOSH (USA)
| Recommended exposure limit (REL) – ceiling limit
| 20&nbsp;ppb<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0413.html |title=Methylene bisphenyl isocyanate |publisher=CDC |access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref>
|-
| NIOSH (USA)
| Recommended exposure limit (REL) – TWA
| 5&nbsp;ppb<ref name=":0" />
|-
| ACGIH (USA)
| Threshold limit value (TLV)
| 5&nbsp;ppb<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=MDI and TDI: Safety, Health and the Environment |last1=Allport |first1=D. C. |last2=Gilbert |first2=D. S. |last3=Outterside |first3=S. M. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, LTD |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-471-95812-3 |location=England |page=346}}</ref>
|-
| Safe Work (Australia)
| All isocyanates – TWA
| 0.02&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/guide-to-handling-isocyanates.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125074012/https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/guide-to-handling-isocyanates.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-25 |url-status=live |title=Guide to handling isocyanates |last=Safe Work Australia |access-date=2018-11-21}}</ref> (approximately 2.5&nbsp;ppb for comparison)
|-
| Safe Work (Australia)
| All isocyanates – STEL
| 0.07&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=":2" /> (approximately 10&nbsp;ppb for comparison)
|-
| Heath & Safety Executive (UK)
| All isocyanates – TWA
|0.02&nbsp;mg/m3<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=EH40/2005 Workplace exposure limits|last=HSE|publisher=The Stationery Office|year=2018|isbn=978-0-7176-6703-1|location=United Kingdom|page=17}}</ref>
|-
| Heath & Safety Executive (UK)
| All isocyanates – STEL
| 0.07&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=":3" />
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate (TDI)
! Organization (region)
! Standard
! Value
|-
| OSHA (USA)
| Ceiling limit
| 20&nbsp;ppb<ref name="auto1"/>
|-
| NIOSH (USA)
| Recommended exposure limit (REL)
| [none]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0621.html |title=Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate |publisher=CDC |access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref>
|-
| ACGIH (USA)
| Threshold limit value (TLV)
| 5&nbsp;ppb<ref name=":1" />
|-
| ACGIH (USA)
| Ceiling limit
| 20&nbsp;ppb<ref name=":1" />
|}