Editing International Brigades (section)

== Status after the war ==
[[File:Stamps of Germany (DDR) 1966, MiNr 1198.jpg|thumb|East German stamp honoring [[Hans Beimler (Communist)|Hans Beimler]] with a combat scene of the International Brigades in the background]]
After the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the brigaders were initially on the "wrong side" of history, especially as most of their home countries had right-wing governments (in France, for instance, the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]] was not in power anymore). However, since most of these countries soon found themselves at war with the very powers which had been supporting the Nationalists, the brigadistas gained some prestige as the first guard of the democracies, as having foreseen the danger of fascism and gone to fight it. Some glory therefore accrued to the volunteers (a great many of the survivors also fought during World War II), but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote [[communism]] by association.

The highest-ranking post-war IB combatant was [[Koča Popović]], who briefly served as the vice-president of Yugoslavia (1966–1967). Two became prime ministers: [[Mehmet Shehu]] (Albania, 1954–1981) and [[Ferenc Münnich]] (Hungary, 1958–1961), while [[Heinrich Rau]] was the chairman of [[German Economic Commission|DWK]], sort of government of what would become East Germany (1948–1949). There were four deputy prime ministers: [[Petre Borilă]] (Romania, 1954–1965), [[:pl:Eugeniusz Szyr|Eugeniusz Szyr]] (Poland, 1959–1972), [[Gogu Rădulescu]] (Romania, 1963–1979), and [[Pietro Nenni]] (Italy, 1963–1968); [[Rodoljub Čolaković]] served as prime minister of Bosnia and Hercegovina, the federative component of Yugoslavia (1945-1948). In communist countries tens of ex-combatants served as ministers (e.g. [[Karlo Lukanov]] in Bulgaria, [[Josef Pavel]] in Czechoslovakia, [[Gheorghe Vasilichi]] in Romania, [[Ernő Gerő]] in Hungary, [[Maks Baće Milić|Maks Baće]] in Yugoslavia), or held other key state jobs, especially in the army and security (e.g. [[Erich Mielke]] in East Germany). In the West the only person holding a ministerial job identified was Nenni, though [[Lou Lichtveld]] was minister in the Dutch-dependent Surinam. In the West few became senators, like [[:it:Armando Fedeli|Armando Fedeli]] (Italy, 1948–1958) and [[Raymond Guyot|Raymond Guyeot]] (France, 1959–1977), and a handful served as members of lower houses in their national parliaments, especially in France (e.g. [[:fr:Auguste Lecœur|Auguste Lecœur]] in 1945-1955) and Italy (e.g. [[:it:Aristodemo Maniera|Aristodemo Maniera]] in 1948-1958); however, the highest-ranking combatant in national legislative was [[Ferdinand Kozovski]], the longtime chairman of the National Assembly of Bulgaria (1949–1965). Beyond the official state structures single individuals grew to high political positions: in the mid-1970s [[Jack Jones (trade unionist)|Jack Jones]] as General Secretary of General Workers Union was considered the most powerful person in Britain.

=== Canada ===
Survivors of the [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]] were often investigated by the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) and denied employment when they returned to Canada. Many "Mac-Pap" veterans volunteered to fight in [[World War II]], but some were rejected as "politically unreliable" due to their communist backgrounds.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Victor |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.cttq92bw |title=MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion: The Canadian Contingent in the Spanish Civil War |last2=Reynolds |first2=Mac |date=1986 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |pages=239–240 |jstor=j.cttq92bw |isbn=978-0-88629-049-8}}</ref>

In 1995, a monument to Canadian soldiers in the Spanish Civil War was built near [[Ontario]]'s provincial parliament.<ref>{{cite news| title = Unsung Canadian soldiers honored ... at last| url = https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/21200277.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jun+04%2C+1995&author=by+Susan+Kastner+TORONTO+STAR&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=Unsung+Canadian+soldiers+honored+.+.+.at+last&pqatl=google| first=Susan| last=Kastner| date = 4 June 1995| work = [[Toronto Star]]| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107235901/https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/thestar/access/21200277.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jun+04%2C+1995&author=by+Susan+Kastner+TORONTO+STAR&pub=Toronto+Star&desc=Unsung+Canadian+soldiers+honored+.+.+.at+last&pqatl=google| archive-date=7 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 12 February 2000, a bronze statue, "The Spirit of the Republic" by sculptor [[Jack Harman (artist)|Jack Harman]], based on a poster from the Spanish Republic, was placed on the grounds of the [[British Columbia]] Legislature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.workingtv.com/main13.html|title="Mac-Pap" Monument Unveiling|publisher=workingTV |access-date=25 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227014034/http://www.workingtv.com/main13.html| archive-date=27 December 2016| url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2001, the few surviving Canadian veterans of the Spanish Civil War dedicated a monument in Ottawa's [[Green Island (Rideau River)|Green Island Park]] to their country's International Brigaders.

=== East Germany ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R0522-177, Erich Mielke (cropped).jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[Erich Mielke]], most powerful [[German Democratic Republic|DDR]] combatant]]
Probably in no country of the world did the International Brigades combatants enjoy the prestige comparable to that bestowed on them in [[East Germany]].<ref>"only Poland came close in its adulation of former Spanish veterans", Arnold Krammer, ''The Cult of the Spanish Civil War in East Germany'', [in:] ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 39/4 (2004), p. 535. More detailed monographs are Josie McLellan, ''Anti-Fascism and Memory in East Germany. Remembering the International Brigades 1945-1989'', Oxford 2004, ISBN 0199276269, and Michael Uhl, ''Mythos Spanien. Das Erbe der Internationalen Brigaden in der DDR'', Bonn 2004, ISBN 3801250318</ref> Though after 1945, they were celebrated in all communist states as freedom fighters against fascism, their position was secondary and the official narrative centred upon other threads, e.g. the [[:pl:1 Armia Polska w ZSRR|USSR-raised army]] in [[Polish People's Republic|Poland]], the [[Slovak National Uprising]] in [[Czechoslovakia]], or the [[Yugoslav Partisans|partisan quasi-state]] in [[Yugoslavia]]. No such narrative was available in the case of East Germany, whose “communist government found itself without historical roots beyond the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe and turned the heroism of the Spanish Civil War fighters into the myth that became a central focus of the German Democratic Republic”.<ref> Arnold Krammer, ''[https://www.hsozkult.de/publicationreview/id/reb-6929 Internationale Brigaden in der DDR]'', [in:] ''H/Soz/Kult'' 42/2 (2005)</ref> Factional purges of the early 1950s affected German veterans (e.g. the cases of [[Franz Dahlem]] or [[Wilhelm Zaisser]]) far less than e.g. in Czechoslovakia, though some “Brigaders faced an uncertain existence as they navigated the tortuous political hairpin curves of life under Stalinism and the continual and often critical need for political realignment”.<ref>“by 1950, the Party had purified the anti-fascist movement of resistance workers, concentration camp survivors, and anti-Nazi spies, leaving only active fighters and committed Party members. What remained was to bring the story of the anti-fascist fighters, a common euphemism for the International Brigades, into ideological alignment”, Kramer 2005</ref> No deviation from official line was allowed; the portrait of IB as in ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' was considered unacceptable and the novel remained black-listed until the late 1960.<ref>Vjeran Pavlaković, ''Yugoslav volunteers in the spanish Civil War'', Beograd 2016, p. 99. Hemingway's novel received different treatment in other Communist countries, e.g. in Poland it was an obligatory school lecture, Jakub Wysmułek, ''Dąbrowszczacy: między symbolem faszyzmu a polityką antykomunizmu'', [in:] ''Kultura i Społeceństwo'' 2 (2019), p. 144. In Yugoslavia in Zagreb alone there were 11 editions between 1952 and 1989, Pavlaković 2016, p. 99</ref> 

Like in other communist countries, the IB veterans – usually referred to as ''Spanienkämpfer'' – were overrepresented in power structures. They took three of the most important military posts: [[Heinz Hoffmann]] as commander of [[National People's Army|Nationale Volksarmee]], [[Erich Mielke]] as head of Ministry for Security, and [[Friedrich Dickel]] as Minister of Interior. Many held other key posts in army and security, e.g. [[:de:Herbert Grünstein|Herbert Grünstein]] was Deputy Minister of the Interior while [[Ewald Munschke]] became chief of administration in NVA. There were 10 former interbrigadistas who entered the Political Bureau of [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands]], some briefly (e.g. [[Anton Ackermann]], Dahlem or Zaisser) and some for decades (e.g. [[Paul Verner]], [[Kurt Hager]] and [[Alfred Neumann (East German politician)|Alfred Neumann]]).<ref> Krammer 2004, p. 539</ref> Numerous ex-combatants assumed high positions in media.<ref> Max Kahane founded Allgemeiner Deutscher Nachrichtendienst and was the chief commentator of ''Neues Deutschland''. Georg Stibi was the chief editor of ''Berliner Zeitung'', then ''Leipziger Volkszeitung'', and finally ''Neues Deutschland''. Frieda Kantorowicz had a high administrative position with ADN. Erich Henschke was the editor-in-chief of ''Berliner Zeitung'' and Kurt Julius Goldstein held the same position in the Deutschlandsender broadcast station</ref> The list of veterans who “rose to the highest ranks in the East German government runs into hundreds”.<ref> Krammer 2004, p. 537</ref>
[[File:Denkmal der Spanienkämpfer.jpg|thumb|''Spanienkämpfer'' monument, Berlin]]
German participation in the International Brigades remained the ideological historiographic backbone of DDR until its collapse. East Germany itself officially acknowledged that “the German-speaking units of the International Brigades represented the nucleus of the armed forces of the future GDR”.<ref> Peter Joachim Lapp, ''Traditionspflege in der DDR'', Berlin [West] 1988, ISBN 9783921226322, pp. 74-75</ref> Books by [[Ludwig Renn]] became standard works and at times obligatory reading.<ref> Krammer 2004, p. 535</ref> Numerous streets, schools, bridges, factories and troop units were named after the ''Spanienkämpfer'';<ref> Krammer 2005</ref> in 1968 they were dedicated a monument, unveiled in East Berlin.<ref> ''[https://bildhauerei-in-berlin.de/bildwerk/denkmal-fuer-die-deutschen-interbrigadisten-5399/ Denkmal für die deutschen Interbrigadisten]'', [in:] ''Bildhauerei in Berlin'' sevice</ref> Attempts to challenge the propagandistic use of German IB history, like the 1979 novel ''Collin'' by [[Stefan Heym]], remained isolated episodes with no major impact. The 1986 fiftieth anniversary of the outbreak of the war saw another outpouring of adulation,<ref> Krammer 2004, p. 558</ref> even though over time the volunteers “became cardboard figures which mirrored the ossification of the State itself”.<ref> Krammer 2005</ref> However, only a few days before the [[fall of the Berlin Wall]], on November 5, 1989, [[Walter Janka]] appeared at a public reading of his memoirs to an overflow crowd at the [[Deutsches Theater (Berlin)|Deutsches Theater]]. The event was broadcast live on radio and shown later on television.<ref> Krammer 2004, p. 559</ref>

=== Czechoslovakia ===
[[File:Josef Pavel 1951 03.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[Josef Pavel]], highest-ranking IB combatant]]
Most Czechoslovak volunteers<ref> it is estimated that out of Czechoslovak volunteers, only 66% were Czechs or Slovaks; 20% were Germans and 11% were Hungarians, Maroš Timko, ''Czechoslovak-Spanish relations (1918-1977)'' [MA thesis Univerzita Karlova v Praze], Praha 2022, p. 28</ref> remained in France; in 1939-40 many got enlisted in troops, raised by the exile government. Later their fate differed: some served in Czechoslovak units raised in Britain,<ref> Zdenko Maršálek, ''Internacionalisté pod drobnohledem. Interbrigadisté v československých jednotkách za druhé světové války pohledem sociologických kategorií'', [in:] ''Paginae historiae'' 25/1 (2017), p. 47</ref> some were members of [[French Resistance|French resistance]], some returned home, and some ended up in concentration camps.<ref> Jiří Nedvěd, ''Českoslovenští dobrovolníci, mezinárodní brigády a občanská válka ve Španělsku v letech 1936 – 1939'' [MA thesis Univerzita Karloyva v Praze], Praha 2008, pp. 147-149</ref>

In re-born [[Czechoslovakia]] the Interbrigadistas, known as ''španěláci'', were granted ex-combatant rights. They were overrepresented in [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia|KSČ]]-controlled power structures (army, public order, security, intelligence). Some of them – like [[Josef Pavel|Pavel]] – were instrumental when carrying out the [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|coup of February 1948]]. The ''Security Five'', key men controlling security institutions – was composed of former IB volunteers: Pavel, [[:cs:Leopold Hofman|Hofman]], [[Otakar Hromádko|Hromádko]], Valeš and [[:cs:Osvald Závodský|Závodský]].<ref> Timko 2022, pp. 73-74</ref> Some rose to deputy ministers ([[Artur London|London]] and [[:cs:Josef Dufek|Dufek]] in foreign affairs, [[:cs:Karol Hušek|Hušek]] in information and [[František Kriegel|Kriegel]] in health).<ref> Nedvěd 2008, pp. 149-152</ref>
[[File:Vlasta Vesela Feiglova (1911 1950).jpg|thumb|160px|[[:cs:Vlasta Veselá|Vlasta Veselá]], possibly tortured to death]]
At the turn of the decades a drastic wave of political purges heavily affected the former Interbrigadistas. Almost all lost their posts and many underwent brutal interrogation; [[:cs:Vlasta Veselá|Veselá]] died in prison. In the early 1950s there was a show-trial planned, intended to denounce “International Brigades as a Trotskyist-Titoist gang”,<ref> Timko 2022, p. 74</ref> though eventually most prison sentences were delivered during small-scale trials. In 1952 [[Otto Šling]] was executed as an enemy spy.<ref> Nedvěd 2008, pp. 152-154</ref>

Following another political change in 1956 those still behind bars were set free and gradually re-admitted to public administration. The 1960s was the golden era for Czechoslovak IB combatants, hailed as the first ones who confronted Fascism. Some (Holdoš, Kriegel, Falbra) took advantage of their linguistic skills and were despatched as advisors to [[Cuban Revolution|Castro’s Cuba]]. Politically the Czechoslovak Interbrigadistas tended to support the reformist wing of KSČ. Few rose to top positions, e.g. in 1968 Kriegel became chairman of the National Front, and Pavel assumed the ministry of interior.

The [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|invasion of 1968]] marked another downturn; most of these at high positions were dismissed, though there was no wave of heavy repression. Some resigned (Pavel, Holdoš), few left for exile (Hromádko) and some were involved in dissident movement (Kriegel). After 1989 there was some confusion in both Czechia and Slovakia as to how the IB veterans should be approached, though the controversy was not comparable to the similar one in Poland;<ref>when noting that “téma dokonce dodnes neztratilo na své kontroverznosti”, the Czech autor quotes the Polish example, not any from Czechia, Maršálek 2017, p. 44 </ref> eventually the image which seems to prevail is this of anti-fascist combatants. In 2016 the Czech minister of defense [[:cs:Karel Kühnl|Kühnl]] awarded commemorative medals to last living Interbrigadistas.<ref> Nedvěd 2008, pp. 154-156</ref> A 2021 monograph presents the ''španěláci'' in balanced, but somewhat sympathetic terms.<ref>compare David Majtenyi, Jiří Rajlich, ''Říkali jim Španěláci'', Praha 2021, ISBN 978-80-7573-099-2</ref>

=== Poland ===
[[File:Eugeniusz Szyr.jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[:pl:Eugeniusz Szyr|Eugeniusz Szyr]], highest-ranking IB combatant]]
In line with the 1920 legislation, Polish citizens who volunteered to the IB were automatically stripped of citizenship as individuals who without formal approval served in foreign armed forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|page= 149}}</ref> Following republican defeat the combatants recruited in France and Belgium returned there.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|page= 148}}</ref> Among the others some served in pro-Communist partisan units in the German-occupied Poland,<ref>individual paths from internment camps to occupied Poland differed, e.g. in 1940 some ex-combatants volunteered to German labor units, recruited in occupied France and deployed in the East; some fought in the Polish army in France or in the French army and were taken prisoner by the Germans, later released from Stalag camps</ref> while some made it to the USSR and served in the pro-Communist Polish army raised there.<ref>usually they remained in French internment camps in Algeria until liberated by the Americans; in 1942–1943 from Africa via Middle East they made it to the USSR. In few cases some Polish IB volunteers were recalled from Spain to the USSR in 1937-1939, mostly to be executed; this was the case e.g. of [[Kazimierz Cichowski]] and [[:pl:Gustaw Reicher|Gustaw Reicher]]</ref>

In the Communist Poland the IB combatants – referred to as ''Dąbrowszczacy''<ref>unlike e.g. in East Germany, Czechoslovakia or Yugoslavia, where IB volunteers gained collective names related to Spain (“Spanienkämpfer”, “španěláci”, “Španci”), in Poland it was not the case. The term “Hiszpanie” (Spaniards) briefly functioned in internal communist parlance, often to denote one of the party factions, but it was not used officially. The term “Dąbrowszczacy” [Dombrovskites] is derived from the surname of [[Jarosław Dąbrowski]], a 19th-century left-wing commander who had been adopted as patron of the XIII International Brigade, the unit where most volunteers from Poland used to serve</ref> - were granted veteran rights and formed an own ex-combatant organisation, later to be amalgamanted into a general one.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|pages=150–151}}</ref> There were some 800 of them registered.<ref>in 1949, growth from 590 in 1947, Różycki 2015, pp. 158, 160. Some additional 400 veterans registered lived abroad, Różycki 2015, p. 160</ref> In the early post-war period they enjoyed some official exaltation; the group was supported by Karol Świerczewski, in Spain a career Soviet commander who during few strings commanded IB units.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|page=152}}</ref> Some assumed high positions in administration,<ref>the highest-ranking IB combatant was Eugeniusz Szyr, who served as deputy prime minister in 1959–1972, {{harvnb|Pietrzak|2016|page=78}}</ref> but they were heavily overrepresented in power structures (army, security);<ref>key figures were Mieczysław Mietkowski, Grzegorz Korczyński, Leon Rubinstein, Józef Mrozek, Franciszek Księżarczyk, Mieczysław Broniatowski, Henryk Toruńczyk, Juliusz Hibner, Jan Rutkowski, Paweł Szkliniarz, and Wacław Komar, who held various jobs in the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Interior, army (especially counter-intelligence), and police, Pietrzak 2016, p. 78</ref> some departments became their fiefdoms, like counter-intelligence branch of the army.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|page=180}}</ref> During purges of early 1950s there were also cases of deposition, arrest and prison on trumped-up charges of political conspiracy;<ref>Grzegorz Korczyński, Wacław Komar, Stanisław Flato, Michał Bron, Wiktor Taubenfliegel, Pietrzak 2016, p. 78</ref> these were released in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|page=186}}</ref>
[[File:A stone, a park and a palace.jpg|thumb|160px|Warsaw, stone after vandalised and removed plaque, honoring IB men]]
Though from the onset Polish engagement in IB was hailed as "working class taking to arms against Fascism", the most intense idolization took place between the mid-1950s and the mid-1960s, with a spate of publications, schools and streets named after ''Dąbrowszczacy''.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|pages=186–187}}</ref> However, an antisemitic turn in the late 1960s again produced de-emphasizing of IB volunteers, many of whom left Poland.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|pages=187–188}}. The best-known are Emanuel Mink, Michał Bron, Wiktor Taubenfligel, Józef Kutin, Eugenia Łozińska, Aleksander Szurek, Artur Kowalski and Ludwik Zagórski</ref> Until the end of Communist rule the IB episode was duly acknowledged, but propaganda related was a far cry from veneration reserved for wartime Communist partisans or the USSR-raised Polish army.<ref>{{harvnb|Różycki| 2015|pages=188–190}}</ref> Despite some efforts on part of IB combatants, no monument has been erected.<ref>except a commemorative stone in the Powązki military cemetery</ref> Unlike in East Germany, except [[:pl:Eugeniusz Szyr|Szyr]] no-one made it to the very top strata of the Communist elite (member of [[Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party|Political Bureau of PZPR]], minister). Unlike in Czechoslovakia or Yugoslavia, no IB combatant became a recognizable figure of political opposition, though some deviated somewhat from the official party line and numerous potential dissidents left the country during anti-semitic purges in 1968-1969.<ref>e.g. [[:pl:Seweryn Ajzner|Seweryn Ajzner]], expelled from PZPR in 1968 (died 1989), has not joined the dissident movement, though he remained somewhat sympathetic and his son did join. [[:pl:Michał Bron|Michał Bron]], also marginalised, merely maintained contacts with dissident movement. Increasingly disillusioned, he left Poland in 1984</ref>

After 1989 it was unclear whether ''Dąbrowszczacy'' were furtherly entitled to veteran privileges; the issue generated political debates until they became pointless, as almost all IB combatants had died.<ref>the legislation adopted in 1991 declared that veterans are individuals who "actively participated in the struggles for Poland's independence and sovereignty"; the veteran status allowed a number of privileges, see {{cite web | last=Dubisz | first=Radosław | title=Veteran Privileges | website=Urząd do Spraw Kombatantów i Osób Represjonowanych | date=2023-10-09 | url=https://test.kombatanci.gov.pl/en/privileges/privilege-list/299-veteran-s-privileges.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203055235/https://test.kombatanci.gov.pl/en/privileges/privilege-list/299-veteran-s-privileges.html | archive-date=2022-12-03 | url-status=live}}</ref> Another question was about homage references, existent in public space. A state-run institution [[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]] declared Polish IB combatants in service of the Stalinist regime and related homage references subject to de-communisation legislation.<ref>{{cite web | title=ul. Dąbrowszczaków | website=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej | date=2021-08-31 | url=https://ipn.gov.pl/pl/upamietnianie/dekomunizacja/zmiany-nazw-ulic/nazwy-ulic/nazwy-do-zmiany/37004,ul-Dabrowszczakow.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620143107/https://ipn.gov.pl/pl/upamietnianie/dekomunizacja/zmiany-nazw-ulic/nazwy-ulic/nazwy-do-zmiany/37004,ul-Dabrowszczakow.html | archive-date=2022-06-20 | url-status=live | language=pl |quote="Byli realizatorami polityki stalinowskiej na Półwyspie Iberyjskim"}}</ref> However, efficiency of purges of public space differs depending upon local political configuration and occasionally there is heated public debate ensuing; in some cases there was conflict between regional and municipal authorities, one trying to overrule another.<ref>in some cases street names have been changed but restored later, for Warsaw see {{cite news |first=Jarosław |last=Osowski |url=https://warszawa.wyborcza.pl/warszawa/7,54420,24635517,koniec-dekomunizacji-w-warszawie-wracaja-ulice-dabrowszczakow.html |title=Koniec dekomunizacji w Warszawie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009095821/https://warszawa.wyborcza.pl/warszawa/7,54420,24635517,koniec-dekomunizacji-w-warszawie-wracaja-ulice-dabrowszczakow.html |archive-date=9 October 2023 |newspaper=Gazeta Wyborcza |date=10 April 2019 |accessdate=20 June 2022}}</ref> Until today the role of Polish IB combatants remains a highly divisive topic; for some they are traitors and for some they are heroes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Opioła |first=Wojciech |year=2016 |title=Hiszpańska wojna domowa w polskich dyskursach politycznych. Analiza publicystyki 1936–2015 |pages= 238–245}}, {{harvnb|Pietrzak| 2016|p= 80}}</ref> In post-Communist Poland they gained few scientific articles, yet no larger scientific monograph on ''Dąbrowszczacy'' has been published.<ref>the closest thing is an exercise in micro-history, Dariusz Zalega, ''Śląsk zbuntowany'', Katowice 2019, ISBN 9788380499362, commercial version of a PhD dissertation on volunteers from Upper Silesia (both German and Polish)</ref>

===Yugoslavia===
[[File:Koča Popović (1).jpg|thumb|160px|left|[[Koča Popović]], highes-ranking IB combatant]]
Though the law passed in 1937 stripped volunteers of citizenship,<ref> Vjeran Pavlaković, ''Yugoslav volunteers in the spanish Civil War'', Beograd 2016, p. 70</ref> some 350 ex-combatants made it to [[Yugoslavia]]; most engaged in Communist-led resistance.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 89</ref> Unlike in anti-Nazi movements of other East European countries, Yugoslav interbrigadiers played a major role, e.g. in Croatian general staff of the [[National Liberation Army (Yugoslavia)|National Liberation Army]] 3 key positions were held by ex-combatants: commander ([[Ivan Rukavina]]), political commissar ([[Marko Orešković]]) and operations officer ([[:hr:Franjo Ogulinac|Franjo Ogulinac]]).<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 84</ref> [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]] specifically issued orders for so-called ''Španci'' to assume command or otherwise important roles.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 85</ref> Three individuals ([[Peko Dapčević]], [[Kosta Nađ]] and [[Petar Drapšin]]) were commanding army-size groupings. Around 30 were later promoted to the rank of a general, 59 became [[People's Hero of Yugoslavia|People's Heroes]], and 130 were killed.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, pp. 89-90</ref>

In the post-war Yugoslavia IB combatants were overrepresented in power structures; [[:hr:Ivan Krajačić|Ivan Krajačić]] and [[Maks Baće]] were instrumental in seting up [[OZNA]],<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 90</ref> while [[Koča Popović]] and Dapčević were chiefs of general staff. Like elsewhere in the communist bloc, some fell victim to the Tito-Stalin split, but here it was the Stalinists who were repressed; some 35 got imprisoned, though no-one was executed.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 90. Also, a group of Slovenes interned in France, later moved to Dachau and liberated in 1945, upon return were trialed as spies, Pavlaković 2016, p. 89</ref> Later a few (less than in East Germany, but more than in Poland) entered executive of the state party, and 20 entered the Central Committee.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 90</ref> Popović briefly served as vice-president of Yugoslavia (1966-67) and a handful were ministers (Popović at foreign affairs, [[Ivan Gošnjak]] at defence, [[Rodoljub Čolaković]] in education). The dictator himself was related to the IB, as in 1936-37 Tito was heavily involved in organising recruitment to the Brigades.
[[File:Prijem delegacije Udruženja španskih boraca Jugoslavije kod predsednika Tita.jpg|thumb|[[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]] with ''Španci'', 1972]]
There were at least 400 members in the Yugoslav IB ex-combatant organization.<ref> the association was named Udruženje jugoslovenskih republikanskih dobrovoljaca Španske republikanske vojske 1936-1939</ref> It remained a highly prestigious group<ref> in 1971 the association was collectively awarded Order of the People’s Hero</ref> and in 1972 the parliament granted them extra rights.<ref> Law on the Basic Rights of Veterans of the Spanish National Liberation War and Revolution (1936-1939)</ref> Some scholars claim that the organisation enjoyed limited political power.<ref> allegedly continuing absence of diplomatic relations between Yugoslavia and Spain, despite some attempts by Franco, resulted from pressure on part of the combatants, Pavlaković 2016, pp. 92-93</ref> ''Španci'' remained celebrated, though usually combined with their role in resistance. First numerous biographies have been published<ref>first books published about the Španci were about individual martyrs and heroes who had fought and died for the Party. The heroic narrative present in biographies about fallen communists such as Marko Orešković-Krntija (1953), Franjo Ogulinac-Seljo (1954), Blagoje Parović (1955), and others</ref> and then broader massive works followed.<ref> Čedo Kapor, a long-time president of the Spanish veterans’ organization, was one of the most active in publishing materials related to the Spanish Civil War, such as the five-volume set, Španija 1936–1939,  Vjeran Pavlaković, Oriol Lopez Badell, ''Jugoslavenski dobrovoljci u Španjolskom građanskom ratu: Povijest i kultura sjećanja'', Rijeka 2021</ref> No Spain-dedicated film has been made, but a ''Španac'', battle-hardened combatant in partisan units, was frequent in movies about the resistance.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 100</ref> Apart from monuments to partisan commanders with earlier IB record,<ref> e.g. to Nikola Car (Crikvenica), Marko Orešković (Korenica, Belgrade), Robert Domanji (Plaški), Blagoje Parović (Nevesinje), and Žikica Jovanović Španac (Valjevo, Radanovci)</ref> a monument dedicated specifically to IB combatants was unveiled in 1976 in [[Rijeka]].<ref> Pavlaković, Lopez Badell 2021, p. 39</ref> Numerous schools, streets and institutions were named after ''naši Španci''. Despite some controversy in 1984,<ref> the combatants' association was unexpectedly targeted by propaganda as enemies of the people following its claim that the party should organize an open national debate, Pavlaković 2016, pp. 94-95</ref> in 1986 massive commemorative events were organized across the country.<ref>"during the fiftieth anniversary commemorations of the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1986, the Yugoslav cultural space was used to promote and celebrate the Spanish veterans, and by extension, the Yugoslav revolutionary tradition. Museums across Yugoslavia prepared exhibits to commemorate Yugoslav volunteers’ participation. The Spanish Civil War, with its associated myths and romanticized heroic narrative, was seen as a tool used to rekindle revolutionary consciousness in the younger generations. The official brochure for the exhibit in Zagreb’s Revolutionary Museum of the Peoples of Croatia (Muzej revolucije naroda Hrvatske) referred to the International Brigade members as a 'symbol' and as 'legends', stating that their decision to volunteer was a 'heroic deed ar excellence'." Other cities across Croatia and Serbia organized similar displays. Pavlaković 2016, p. 101</ref> Few brigadiers became political dissidents, though most remained faithful to the party line.<ref>e.g. Maks Baće became a recognizable dissident; on the other hand, Kosta Nađ remained a loyal man of the regime</ref>

In all succcessor states the same pattern is at work as to heritage of IB volunteers. The memory debate has largely bypassed them due to the predominance of the Second World War on the mnemonic battlefield. However, for the Left they remain anti-fascist freedom fighters, while the Right relates brigadiers to post-war crimes such as the [[Bleiburg repatriations|Bleiburg massacre]].<ref> Pavlaković 2016, pp. 103-104. In a Serbian 2004 movie ''Duga mračna noć'' a Španac is traditionally presented as a great fighter and organizer, but compared to earlier films there is new thread present; he is also an authoritarian figure, brutal towards anyone challenging him and the party, Pavlaković 2016, pp. 100-101</ref> The Rijeka monument has been dismantled; monuments to other IB combatants (and resistance figures) suffered different fate, some removed,<ref> The bust of Ćopić, unveiled in his native Senj in 1976, was removed and its location is unknown,  Pavlaković, Lopez Badell 2021, p. 19</ref> some re-located to less prestigious spots,<ref> e.g. the large monument of Blagoje Parović in Nevesinje</ref> and some renovated,<ref> e.g. the partisan memorial - with explicit references to Spain and International Brigades - in Perjasica (Croatia)</ref> yet the purges are interpreted as "part of the general nationalization of public space in the successor states" rather than a specific anti-IB or de-communisation project.<ref> Pavlaković 2016, p. 104</ref> Author of recent mononograph refers to "forgotten history of Yugoslav volunteers"; his perspective is that memory of the combatants is equal to cultivating "antifascist values necessary to foster an open and tolerant society in the twenty-first century".<ref> Vjeran Pavlaković, ''[https://europeanmemories.net/magazine/cultural-memory-of-yugoslav-volunteers-in-the-spanish-civil-war-1/ Cultural Memory of Yugoslav Volunteers in the Spanish Civil War]'', [in:] ''EuropeanMemories'' service 16.12.2020 </ref>

=== Switzerland ===
[[File:Hommage aux brigadistes-MTorres-2000-4.jpg|thumb|160px|left|Monument to Swiss IB volunteers, [[Geneva]].]]
In Switzerland, public sympathy was high for the Republican cause, but the federal government banned all fundraising and recruiting activities a month after the start of the war as part of the country's long-standing policy of [[Neutral country|neutrality]].<ref name = Swissinfo_2008>{{cite web | title = No pardon for Spanish civil war helpers | date = 27 February 2008 | website = [[Swissinfo]] | first = Daniele | last = Mariani | url = http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/news/social_affairs/No_pardon_for_Spanish_civil_war_helpers.html?siteSect=201&sid=8751871 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130113065742/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/archive/No_pardon_for_Spanish_civil_war_helpers.html?cid=6445388 |archive-date=2013-01-13}}</ref> Around 800 Swiss volunteers joined the International Brigades, among them a small number of women.<ref name = Swissinfo_2008 /> Sixty percent of Swiss volunteers identified as communists, while the others included socialists, anarchists and antifascists.<ref name = Swissinfo_2008 />

Some 170 Swiss volunteers were killed in the war.<ref name = Swissinfo_2008 /> The survivors were tried by [[military court]]s upon their return to Switzerland for violating the criminal prohibition on foreign military service.<ref name = Swissinfo_2008 /><ref>{{cite swiss law | link = 321_0 | sr = 321.0 | en = Swiss Military Penal Code | art = 94}}</ref> The courts pronounced 420 sentences which ranged from around 2 weeks to 4 years in prison, and often also stripped the convicts of their [[political rights]] for the period of up to 5 years. In the Swiss society, traditionally highly appreciative of civic virtues, this translated to longtime stigmatization also after the penalty period expired.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Piotr |last=Bednarz |title=Szwajcarscy ochotnicy w Brygadach Międzynarodowych w Hiszpanii (1936–1939) |journal=Acta Universitatis Lodzensis |issue=97 |year=2016 |pages=127–142 |doi=10.18778/0208-6050.97.07 |language=pl|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the judgment of Swiss historian [[Mauro Cerutti (historian)|Mauro Cerutti]], volunteers were punished more harshly in Switzerland than in any other democratic country.<ref name = Swissinfo_2008 />
[[File:Zürich Volkshaus - 2014-04-23.JPG|thumb|Zürich Volkshaus; plaque is visible left to main entrance]]
Motions to [[pardon]] the Swiss brigaders on the account that they fought for a [[Just war theory|just cause]] have been repeatedly introduced in the [[Swiss Federal Assembly|Swiss federal parliament]]. A first such proposal was defeated in 1939 on neutrality grounds.<ref name = Swissinfo_2008 /> In 2002, Parliament again rejected a pardon of the Swiss war volunteers, with a majority arguing that they broke a law that remains in effect to this day.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/ff/2002/7781.pdf |title=Report of the Judicial Committee of the National Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527232109/http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/ff/2002/7781.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2008 |year=2002 |website=admin.ch}}</ref> In March 2009, Parliament adopted the third bill of pardon, retroactively rehabilitating Swiss brigades, only a handful of whom were still alive.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/news_digest/Parliament_pardons_Spanish_Civil_War_fighters.html?siteSect=104&sid=10442150|title=Parliament pardons Spanish Civil War fighters|work=[[Swissinfo]]|date=Mar 12, 2009|access-date=13 March 2009|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120914153300/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/Parliament_pardons_Spanish_Civil_War_fighters.html?cid=7271328|archive-date=2012-09-14|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In 2000 there was a monument honoring Swiss IB combatants unveiled in [[Geneva]]; there are also numerous plaques mounted elsewhere, e.g., at the Volkshaus in [[Zürich]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bednarz|2016|p=140}}</ref> Since 2003 there is "Place des Brigades-internationales" in [[La Chaux-de-Fonds]]. No Swiss IB ex-combatants became widely known personalities, though in the late 20th century some acquired certain public recognition; these were the cases of Ernst Stauffer (local civil servant and author of memoirs) and [[:de:Hans Hutter|Hans Hutter]] (author and activist for rehabilitation). IG Spanienfreiwillige, an organisation set up to cultivate the memory of Swiss volunteers, built up a database of around 800 individuals, more than a half of them listed with some biographical details.<ref>''[https://spanienfreiwillige.ch/die-freiwilligen/ Die Schweizer Freiwilligen von A – Z]''</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
On disbandment, 305 British volunteers left Spain to return home.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Unlikely Warriors: The British in the Spanish Civil War and the Struggle Against Fascism]] |first1=Richard |last1=Baxell |author-link=Richard Baxell |date=6 September 2012 |publisher=Aurum Press Limited |type=Hardcover |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unlikelywarriors0000baxe/page/400 400] |isbn=978-1-84513-697-0 }}</ref> They arrived at [[London Victoria station|Victoria Station]] in central London on 7 December and were met warmly as returning heroes by a crowd of supporters including [[Clement Attlee]], [[Stafford Cripps]], [[Willie Gallacher (politician)|Willie Gallacher]], [[Ellen Wilkinson]] and [[Will Lawther]].<ref>{{Citation |title=UK: WAR: INTERNATIONAL BRIGADE RETURN FROM FIGHTING IN SPAIN (1938) | date=12 November 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ec-nhQ6jt2Q |access-date=2023-08-09 |language=en |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810202238/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ec-nhQ6jt2Q&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

The last surviving British member of the International Brigades, Geoffrey Servante, died in April 2019 aged 99.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/content/farewell-geoffrey-servante-our-last-man-standing|title=Farewell to Geoffrey Servante, our last man standing – International Brigade Memorial Trust|website=www.international-brigades.org.uk|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801230510/http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/content/farewell-geoffrey-servante-our-last-man-standing|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== IBMT ====
{{See also|International Brigade Memorial Trust}}
The [[International Brigade Memorial Trust]] is a registered charity that handles activities around the memory of volunteers from Britain and Ireland. The group maintains a map of memorials to volunteers in the Spanish Civil War and organises yearly events to commemorate the war.<ref>{{cite web | title=Map of memorials | website=International Brigade Memorial Trust | date=2022-09-09 | url=https://international-brigades.org.uk/uncategorized/map-of-memorials/}}</ref>

=== United States ===
{{Main|Abraham Lincoln Brigade}}
In the United States, the returned volunteers were labeled "premature anti-fascists" by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]], denied promotion during service in the [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]] during World War II, and pursued by [[United States Congress|Congressional]] committees during the [[Red Scare]] of 1947–1957.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/premature-antifascists-and-the-post-war-world/?searchterm=bill%20susman |title=Premature antifascists and the Post-war world |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001607/http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/premature-antifascists-and-the-post-war-world/?searchterm=bill%20susman |archive-date=31 December 2013 |via=Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives&nbsp;— Bill Susman Lecture Series. King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center at [[New York University]], 1998 |accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |authorlink=Bernard Knox |first=Bernard |last=Knox|url=http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/scw/knox.htm |title=Premature Anti-Fascist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208202958/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/scw/knox.htm |archive-date=8 February 2014 |via=The Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives&nbsp;— Bill Susman Lecture Series. King Juan Carlos I of Spain Center&nbsp;— New York University, 1998 |accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> However, threats of loss of citizenship were not carried out.