Editing Indian religions (section)

==== Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE) ====
{{See also|Shramana|Magadha}}
[[File:Buddha state at Dargeeling.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Buddha statue at Darjeeling]]

[[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE{{Sfn|Jain|2008|p=210}}{{sfn|Svarghese|2008|p=259-60}}{{sfn|Mallinson|2007|pp=17–18, 32–33}} in the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] kingdom., reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India",{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=217}} and were responsible for the related concepts of ''[[saṃsāra]]'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation from that cycle).{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}{{refn|group=note|Gavin Flood and [[Patrick Olivelle]]: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}}}

The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82 82]}} The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur</ref><ref name="Cromwell">S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972)</ref>{{refn|group=note|Cromwell Crwaford: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."<ref name="Cromwell" />}}<ref name="Masih">Y. Masih (2000). In: ''A Comparative Study of Religions''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 18. {{ISBN|81-208-0815-0}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Masih: "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to [sic] the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."<ref name="Masih" />}}<ref name="Jaini">Padmanabh S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169</ref>{{refn|group=note |Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism".<ref name="Jaini" />}} Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and [[Buddha]] (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.

Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of [[samsara]], and the concept of liberation.{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence...."{{sfn|Flood|Olivelle|2003|p=273–274}}}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Flood: "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating among sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}}}}{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{refn|group=note|Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them."{{sfn|Jaini|2001|p=51}}}}{{refn|group=note|Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."<ref>P. 93 ''World Religions'' By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski.</ref>}} The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While [[Radhakrishnan]], [[Hermann Oldenberg|Oldenberg]] and [[Karl Eugen Neumann|Neumann]] were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, [[Charles Eliot (diplomat)|Eliot]] and [[Edward J. Thomas|Thomas]] highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.<ref>{{citation |last=Pratt |first=James Bissett |title=The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90 |year=1996 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1196-2 |page=90 |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223183102/https://books.google.com/books?id=cLXwU9e6D4sC&pg=PA90#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.<ref>{{citation|last=Upadhyaya|first=Kashi Nath |year=1998 |title=Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBbznHuPrTYC&pg=PA103 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0880-5|pages=103–104}}</ref> In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as "pernicious views".<ref>Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part One.'' Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 139.</ref>

===== Jainism =====
{{Main|Mahavira|Jainism|Timeline of Jainism|Jain community}}

Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with [[Parshvanatha]] (9th century BCE) and [[Mahavira]] (6th century BCE).<ref name="Oldmeadow">[[Harry Oldmeadow]] (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, [[World Wisdom]], Inc. {{ISBN|1-933316-22-5}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Oldmeadow: "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as [[śramaṇa|Sramana Dharma]]. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."<ref name="Oldmeadow" /> Page 141}}

The 24th [[Tirthankara]] of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truthfulness), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment). As per Jain tradition, the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time. The scholars believe [[Parshva]], accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the [[shramana]] movement.<ref name="Fisher">Mary Pat Fisher (1997). [https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0 ''Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths''], 3rd ed. I. B. Tauris: London. {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}}. {{OCLC|41293467}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Fisher: "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira."<ref name="Fisher" />|p=[https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0/mode/2up?q=Mahavira p. 115].}}

===== Buddhism =====
{{Main|Gautama Buddha|Buddhism|Pre-sectarian Buddhism|History of Buddhism|History of Buddhism in India}}
[[File:Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand.jpg|thumb|Buddhist Monks creating a traditional sand mandala made from coloured sand]]

Buddhism was historically founded by [[Siddhartha Gautama]], a [[Kshatriya]] prince-turned-ascetic,<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1997 a829">{{cite web | title=Life of Gautama Buddha and the origin of Buddhism | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=July 1, 1997 | url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201164308/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism | url-status=live }}</ref> and was spread beyond India through missionaries.<ref name="Learman_2005">{{cite book |last=Learman L.(Ed.) |first=Linda |date=2005 |title=Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn4jw |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |page= |jstor=j.ctvvn4jw |isbn=978-0-8248-2810-3 |access-date=1 February 2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165225/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn4jw |url-status=live }}</ref> It later experienced a [[decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] in India, but survived in [[Nepal]]<ref name="Jain 2011 p955">{{cite web | last=Jain | first=Pankaj | title=Buddhism: Origin, Spread And Decline | website=HuffPost | date=September 1, 2011 | url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/buddhism-origin-spread-decline_b_939679 | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165748/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/buddhism-origin-spread-decline_b_939679 | url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Sri Lanka]], and remains more widespread in [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asian Buddhism|East Asia]].<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 d788">{{cite web | title=Buddhism | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=September 28, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/The-demise-of-Buddhism-in-India | access-date=February 1, 2024 | archive-date=1 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201165748/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/The-demise-of-Buddhism-in-India | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Gautama Buddha]], who was called an "awakened one" ([[Buddhahood|Buddha]]), was born into the [[Shakya]] clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor [[Ashoka]]'s Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power.  The Shakyas claimed [[Angiras]]a and [[Gautama Maharishi]] lineage,<ref>''The Life of Buddha as Legend and History'', by [[Edward Joseph Thomas]]</ref> via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.

Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |title=A dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Hodge |first2=Stephen |last3=Jones |first3=Charles |last4=Tinti |first4=Paola |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-860560-7 |edition=1. publ |location=Oxford |chapter=Theravāda}}</ref> and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |title=A dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Hodge |first2=Stephen |last3=Jones |first3=Charles |last4=Tinti |first4=Paola |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-860560-7 |edition=1. publ |location=Oxford |chapter=Mahāyāna}}</ref> There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}