Editing Imperialism (section)

===Social Darvinism===
[[File:China imperialism cartoon.jpg|upright|thumb|A French [[political cartoon]] depicting a shocked [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] in [[Manchu people|Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Queen Victoria]] ([[British Empire]]), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] ([[German Empire]]), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[Russian Empire]]), [[Marianne]] ([[French Third Republic]]), and a [[samurai]] ([[Empire of Japan]]) stabbing into a [[king cake]] with {{Lang|fr|Chine}} ("China" in French) written on it. A portrayal of New Imperialism and its effects on [[Qing Empire|China]].]]

Stephen Howe has summarized his view on the beneficial effects of the colonial empires:

{{Blockquote|At least some of the great modern empires—the British, French, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and even the Ottoman—have virtues that have been too readily forgotten. They provided stability, security, and legal order for their subjects. They constrained, and at their best, tried to transcend, the potentially savage ethnic or religious antagonisms among the peoples. And the aristocracies which ruled most of them were often far more liberal, humane, and cosmopolitan than their supposedly ever more democratic successors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stephen Howe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04lJ4TshmxcC&pg=PT164 |title=Empire: A Very Short Introduction |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-160444-7 |page=164| publisher=OUP Oxford }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishan Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iupuDQAAQBAJ |title=Visions of Empire: How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4008-8491-9 |page=4| publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>}}

A controversial aspect of imperialism is the defense and justification of empire-building based on seemingly rational grounds. In [[ancient China]], [[Tianxia]] denoted the lands, space, and area divinely appointed to the Emperor by universal and well-defined principles of order. The center of this land was directly apportioned to the Imperial court, forming the center of a world view that centered on the Imperial court and went concentrically outward to major and minor officials and then the common citizens, [[tributary states]], and finally ending with the fringe "[[barbarians]]". Tianxia's idea of hierarchy gave Chinese a privileged position and was justified through the promise of order and peace.

The purportedly scientific nature of "[[Social Darwinism]]" and a theory of races formed a supposedly rational justification for imperialism. Under this doctrine, the French politician [[Jules Ferry]] could declare in 1883 that "Superior races have a right, because they have a duty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Modern Imperialism |publisher=D.C. Heath |year=1969 |editor-last=Austen |editor-first=Ralph |location=Lexington, Massachusetts |pages=70–73}}</ref> [[J. A. Hobson]] identifies this justification on general grounds as: "It is desirable that the earth should be peopled, governed, and developed, as far as possible, by the races which can do this work best, i.e. by the races of highest 'social efficiency'".<ref>Hobson, J.A. ''Imperialism: A Study.'' Cosimo, Inc., 2005. p. 154, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.121968/page/n183/mode/2up?view=theater</ref> The [[Royal Geographical Society|Royal Geographical Society of London]] and other geographical societies in Europe had great influence and were able to fund travelers who would come back with tales of their discoveries. These societies also served as a space for travellers to share these stories.<ref name=Gilmartin2009/>{{Rp|117}} Political geographers such as [[Friedrich Ratzel]] of Germany and [[Halford Mackinder]] of Britain also supported imperialism.<ref name=Gilmartin2009/>{{Rp|117}} Ratzel believed expansion was necessary for a state's survival and this argument dominated the discipline of [[geopolitics]] for decades.<ref name=Gilmartin2009/>{{Rp|117}} British imperialism in some sparsely-inhabited regions applied a principle now termed [[Terra nullius]] (Latin expression which stems from [[Roman law]] meaning 'no man's land'). The British settlement in Australia in the 18th century was arguably premised on ''terra nullius'', as its settlers considered it unused by its original inhabitants. The rhetoric of colonizers being racially superior appears still to have its impact. For example, throughout Latin America "whiteness" is still prized today and various forms of [[blanqueamiento]] (whitening) are common.

Imperial peripheries benefited from [[economic efficiency]] improved through the building of roads, other infrastructure and introduction of new technologies. [[Herbert Lüthy]] notes that ex-colonial peoples themselves show no desire to undo the basic effects of this process. Hence moral self-criticism in respect of the colonial past is out of place.<ref>[[Wolfgang Mommsen| Mommsen, Wolfgang]] (1982). ''Theories of Imperialism'', (tr. Falla, P. S. Chicago: University of Chicago Press), p 76-77, https://archive.org/details/theoriesofimperi0000momm/page/76/mode/2up?view=theater</ref>