Editing Iberian Peninsula (section)

=== Pre-modern Iberia ===
{{See also|Visigothic Kingdom|Al-Andalus|Spania|Kingdom of the Suebi}}
[[File:Iberia 560.svg|thumb|Germanic and Byzantine rule {{circa}}&nbsp;560]]
In the early fifth century, [[Germanic peoples]] occupied the peninsula, namely the [[Suebi]], the [[Vandals]] ([[Silingi]] and [[Hasdingi]]) and their allies, the [[Alans]]. Only the kingdom of the Suebi ([[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the [[Visigoths]], who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day [[Braga]]), in 584–585. They would also occupy the [[Roman province|province]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (552–624) of [[Spania]] in the south of the peninsula{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}. However, [[Balearic Islands]] remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest, which began in 703 CE and was completed in 902 CE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zavagno- |first=Luca |date=2020 |title="No Island is an Island": The Byzantine Mediterranean in The Early Middle Ages (600s-850s) |url=https://legendsjournal.com/files/legendsjournal_makale/a7e261f5-6105-4bd5-9fb3-3f0e163e7cad.pdf |journal=The Legends Avrupa Tarihi Çalışmaları Dergisi |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=57–80 |doi=10.29228/legends.44375 |s2cid=226576363 |issn=2718-0190}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cau Ontiveros |first1=Miguel Ángel |last2=Fantuzzi |first2=Leandro |last3=Tsantini |first3=Evanthia |last4=Mas Florit |first4=Catalina |last5=Chávez-Álvarez |first5=Esther |last6=Gandhi |first6=Ajay |date=2020-12-16 |title=Archaeometric characterization of water jars from the Muslim period at the city of Pollentia (Alcúdia, Mallorca, Balearic Islands) |url=https://journals.openedition.org/archeosciences/7155 |journal=ArcheoSciences. Revue d'archéométrie |volume=44-1 |language=en |issue=44 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.4000/archeosciences.7155 |s2cid=234569616 |issn=1960-1360}}</ref>

{{Main|Al-Andalus|Reconquista}}
In 711, a [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Muslim army]] conquered the [[Visigoths|Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania]]. Under [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania]]. [[Al-Andalus]] ({{langx|ar|الإندلس}}, tr. ''al-ʾAndalūs'', possibly "Land of the Vandals"),<ref>{{cite book|title=Abraham Ibn Daud's Dorot 'Olam (Generations of the Ages): A Critical Edition and Translation of Zikhron Divrey Romi, Divrey Malkhey Yisra?el, and the Midrash on Zechariah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqNR6MqN8csC&pg=PA57|access-date=10 August 2013|date=7 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-24815-1|page=57}}</ref><ref name="Samsó1998">{{cite book|author=Julio Samsó|title=The Formation of Al-Andalus: History and society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3k9pAAAAMAAJ|access-date=10 August 2013|year=1998|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-86078-708-2|pages=41–42}}</ref> is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia. The Muslim conquerors were [[Arabs]] and [[Berbers]]; following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place,{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=41–42}} (''muwalladum'' or ''[[Muladí]]'').{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=43}}<ref name="Fernández-Morera2016">{{cite book|author=Darío Fernández-Morera|title=The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJNgCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT286|date=9 February 2016|publisher=Intercollegiate Studies Institute|isbn=978-1-5040-3469-2|page=286}}</ref> After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries, the majority of the population in Al-Andalus eventually converted to Islam.{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=47}} The Muslims were referred to by the generic name ''[[Moors]]''.<ref name="Peters2009">{{cite book|author=F. E. Peters|title=The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume I: The Peoples of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsafPfUjC6EC&pg=PA182|date=11 April 2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-2570-7|page=182}}</ref> The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muladí), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers.{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=43–44}} Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and the Syrians (second wave).{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=45}} Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the [[Dhimmi|''dhimmah'' system]],{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=46}} although Jews became very important in certain fields.{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=49}} Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as ''musta'arab'' ([[mozarab]]s).{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=48}} The slave population comprised the ''[[Saqaliba|Ṣaqāliba]]'' (literally meaning "slavs", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as [[Sudan (region)|Sudanese]] slaves.{{Sfn|Marín-Guzmán|1991|p=50}}
[[File:Al Andalus & Christian Kingdoms.svg|thumb|Islamic rule: [[al-Andalus]] {{circa}}&nbsp;1000]]
The Umayyad rulers faced a major [[Berber Revolt]] in the early 740s; the uprising originally broke out in North Africa (Tangier) and later spread across the peninsula.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|p=20}} Following the [[Abbasid]] takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, the western province of al-Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756, ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals, [[Abd al-Rahman I]].{{Sfn|Constable|1994|p=3}}
Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]. The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] and his successor [[al-Hakam II]], becoming then, in the view of [[Jaime Vicens Vives]], "the most powerful state in Europe".{{Sfn|Vicens Vives|1970|p=37}} Abd-ar-Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al-Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar,{{Sfn|Vicens Vives|1970|p=37}} waging war, as well as his successor, against the [[Fatimid Empire]].{{Sfn|Safran|2000|p=38–42}}

Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones: [[Córdoba (Spain)|Córdoba]] reached a population of 100,000 by the 10th century, [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] 30,000 by the 11th century and [[Seville]] 80,000 by the 12th century.{{Sfn|Ladero Quesada|2013|p=167}}

During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the [[Kingdom of Castile]], the [[Kingdom of Aragon]], the [[Kingdom of Navarre]], the [[Kingdom of León]] or the [[Kingdom of Portugal]], as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian [[Marca Hispanica]]. Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances.{{efn|Christian forces were usually better armoured than their Muslim counterparts, with noble and non-noble ''milites'' and ''cavallers'' wearing [[Chain mail|mail]] [[hauberk]]s, separate [[mail coif]]s and metal helmets, and armed with [[Mace (bludgeon)|maces]], cavalry axes, sword and lances.<ref>{{cite book |title=Warfare in the Medieval World |date=2006 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=9781848846326}}</ref>}} The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the "[[Reconquista]]" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately "the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492").{{Sfn|Cavanaugh|2016|p=4}}

[[File:Warriors embrace CSM 185 panel 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Two warriors embrace before the siege of Chincoya Castle (''[[Cantigas de Santa Maria]]'').]]

The Caliphate of Córdoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the [[Fitna of al-Andalus]]) and collapsed in the early 11th century, spawning a series of ephemeral statelets, the ''[[taifa]]s''. Until the mid 11th century, most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias/León was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations; then, profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities, [[Ferdinand I of León]] seized Lamego and Viseu (1057–1058) and Coimbra (1064) away from the [[Taifa of Badajoz]] (at times at war with the [[Taifa of Seville]]);<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atlantico.fr/decryptage/3477507/la-reconquista-une-entreprise-geopolitique-complexe-carlos-laliena-corbera-philippe-senac|date=12 August 2018|title=La Reconquista, une entreprise géopolitique complexe|website=Atlantico.fr|first1=Laliena|last1= Corbera|first2=Philippe|last2=Sénac}}</ref>{{Sfn|García Fitz|Ayala Martínez|Alvira Cabrer|2018|p=83–84}} Meanwhile, in the same year Coimbra was conquered, in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon [[Crusade of Barbastro|took Barbastro]] from the Hudid [[Taifa of Lérida]] as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II. Most critically, [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI of León-Castile]] conquered Toledo and its [[Taifa of Toledo|wider taifa]] in 1085, in what it was seen as a critical event at the time, entailing also a huge territorial expansion, advancing from the [[Sistema Central]] to [[La Mancha]].{{Sfn|García Fitz|Ayala Martínez|Alvira Cabrer|2018|p=84}} In 1086, following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of León-Castile, the [[Almoravid]]s, religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb, landed in the Iberian Peninsula, and, having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the [[battle of Zalaca]], began to seize control of the remaining taifas.{{Sfn|Flood|2019|pp=87–88}}

The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part.{{Sfn|O'Callaghan|1983|p=228}} The [[Almohad]]s, another North-African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar,{{Sfn|O'Callaghan|1983|p=227}} first entered the peninsula in 1146.{{Sfn|O'Callaghan|1983|p=229}}

Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms.{{Sfn|Buresi|2011|p=5}} The relatively novel concept of "frontier" (Sp: ''frontera''), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands.{{Sfn|Buresi|2011|pp=2–3}}
[[File:MoorandChristianBattle.png|thumb|Moorish and Christian [[Reconquista]] battle, taken from ''The Cantigas de Santa María'']]
By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World.{{Sfn|Constable|1994|p=2–3}}

During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and León, from [[Alfonso V of León|Alfonso V]] and [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile|Alfonso VI]] (crowned ''Hispaniae Imperator'') to [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X]] and [[Alfonso XI of Castile|Alfonso XI]] tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology.{{Sfn|Rodrigues|2011|p=7}} Despite the hegemonic ambitions of its rulers and the consolidation of the union of Castile and León after 1230, it should be pointed that, except for a brief period in the 1330s and 1340s, Castile tended to be nonetheless "essentially unstable" from a political standpoint until the late 15th century.{{Sfn|Ruiz|2021|pp=88; 99}}

Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal.{{Sfn|Wallerstein|2011|p=49}} Since the 13th century, the [[Crown of Aragon]] expanded overseas; led by [[Catalans]], it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean, with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the [[Balearics]], [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]], and even conquering Naples in the mid-15th century.{{Sfn|Gillespie|2000|p=1}} Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming, according to [[Virgínia Rau]], the "great centre of Genoese trade" in the early 14th century.{{Sfn|Wallerstein|2011|p=49–50}} The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] influence.{{Sfn|Wallerstein|2011|p=49}} The [[Nasrid Kingdom of Granada]], neighbouring the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and founded upon a [[Vassal state|vassalage]] relationship with the Crown of Castile,{{Sfn|Fábregas García|2006|p=1616}} also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network, with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese.{{Sfn|Fábregas García|2006|p=16–17}}

Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the "crisis of the Strait", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle ("a kaleidoscope of alliances") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the [[Marinid Sultanate]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gillespie|2000|p=4}}; {{Harvnb|Albarrán|2018|p=37}}</ref> The conflict reached a climax in the 1340 [[Battle of Río Salado]], when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender) [[Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman]] made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula. The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean.{{Sfn|Muñoz Bolaños|2012|p=154}}
[[File:FraMauroMapSpainPortugalNorthenAfrica.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Map of the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa (inverted) by [[Fra Mauro]] (ca. 1450)]]
The [[Black Death|1348–1350 bubonic plague]] devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation.{{sfn|Ruiz|2017|p=18}} Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken.{{Sfn|Ruiz|2017|p=18}} The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms.{{Sfn|Ruiz|2017|p=19}}

The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms. After the death of [[Peter of Castile|Peter the Cruel of Castile]] (reigned 1350–69), the [[House of Trastámara]] succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother, [[Henry II of Castile|Henry II]] (reigned 1369–79). In the kingdom of Aragón, following the death without heirs of [[John I of Aragon|John I]] (reigned 1387–96) and [[Martin of Aragon|Martin I]] (reigned 1396–1410), a prince of the House of Trastámara, [[Ferdinand I of Aragon|Ferdinand I]] (reigned 1412–16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekH7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT417|title=A History of Europe: From 1378 to 1494|first=W. T.|last=Waugh|date=14 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|via=Google Books|isbn=9781317217022}}</ref> The [[Hundred Years' War]] also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory.{{Sfn|Phillips|1996|p=424}} After the accession of [[Henry III of Castile|Henry III]] to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo. In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zese2C-fDTEC&pg=PA118|title=Teaching Jewish History|first1=Julia Phillips|last1=Berger|first2=Sue Parker|last2=Gerson|date=30 September 2006|publisher=Behrman House, Inc|isbn=9780867051834|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uK5pa3R4d8C&pg=PA205|title=Codex Judaica: Chronological Index of Jewish History, Covering 5,764 Years of Biblical, Talmudic & Post-Talmudic History|first=Máttis|last=Kantor|date=30 September 2005|publisher=Zichron Press|isbn=9780967037837|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXq3AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA222|title=Why Me God: A Jewish Guide for Coping and Suffering|first=Lisa|last=Aiken|date=1 February 1997|publisher=Jason Aronson, Incorporated|isbn=9781461695479|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QEjPVyd9YMC&pg=PA166|title=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities|first1=Melvin|last1=Ember|first2=Carol R.|last2=Ember|first3=Ian|last3=Skoggard|date=30 November 2004|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780306483219|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Gilbert|2003|p=46}}; {{Harvnb|Schaff|2013}}</ref> or even as many as 100,000, according to [[Jane Gerber]].{{Sfn|Gerber|1994|p=113}} Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to [[Hasdai Crescas]], about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.<ref>{{cite book |title=Anti-Jewish Riots in the Crown of Aragon and the Royal Response, 1391–1392 |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107164512 |page=19}}</ref>

During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the [[House of Aviz]], [[Conquest of Ceuta|conquering Ceuta]] (1415) arriving at [[Porto Santo Island|Porto Santo]] (1418), [[Madeira Island|Madeira]] and the [[Azores]], as well as establishing additional outposts along the North-African Atlantic coast.{{Sfn|Gloël|2017|p=55}} In addition, already in the Early Modern Period, between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, the [[Hispanic Monarchy (political entity)|Hispanic Monarchy]] would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb.{{Sfn|Escribano Páez|2016|pp=189–191}}
During the Late Middle Ages, the [[History of the Jews in Spain|Jews]] acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon.{{sfn|Llorente|1843|p=19}}

Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with [[Barcelona]] (already in the 14th century), [[Valencia]] (particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent, [[Palma de Mallorca]] (since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples.{{Sfn|González Arévalo|2019|pp=16–17}} Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade.{{Sfn|González Arévalo|2019|pp=16–17}} Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of [[Málaga]] entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile.{{Sfn|González Arévalo|2019|p=16}}

By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525&nbsp;million (Crown of Castile, 4.3&nbsp;million; Portugal, 1.0&nbsp;million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3&nbsp;million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255&nbsp;million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25&nbsp;million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25&nbsp;million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12&nbsp;million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05&nbsp;million).{{Sfn|Ladero Quesada|2013|p=180}}

For three decades in the 15th century, the ''Hermandad de las Marismas'', the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the [[Hanseatic League]], fought against the latter,{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} an ally of England, a rival of Castile in political and economic terms.{{Sfn|González Sánchez|2013|p=350}} Castile sought to claim the [[Gulf of Biscay]] as its own.{{Sfn|González Sánchez|2013|p=347}} In 1419, the powerful Castilian navy [[Battle of La Rochelle (1419)|thoroughly defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle]].{{Sfn|Phillips|1996|p=424}}{{Sfn|González Sánchez|2013|p=347}}

In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the [[Catholic Monarchs]] in Castile and Aragon, and by [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] in Portugal.{{Sfn|Rodrigues|2011|p=7}}

{{See also|Massacre of 1391}}
[[File:Reinos Antiguo Régimen.svg|thumb|Iberian Kingdoms in 1400]]
The last Muslim stronghold, [[Emirate of Granada|Granada]], was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religious Refugees in the Early Modern World: An Alternative History of the Reformation |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107024564 |page=108}}</ref> Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the [[Granada War#Last stand at Granada|fall of Granada]], all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion—as many as 200,000 Jews were [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|expelled from Spain]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia |isbn=9780753457849 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kingfisherhistor00edit/page/201 201] |url=https://archive.org/details/kingfisherhistor00edit/page/201 |year=2004 |publisher=Kingfisher }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gw8EZypTqekC&pg=PA180|title=True Jew: Challenging the Stereotype|first=Bernard|last=Beck|date=30 September 2012|publisher=Algora Publishing|via=Google Books|isbn=9780875869032}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/expulsionofjews00stro|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/expulsionofjews00stro/page/9 9]|title=The Expulsion of the Jews: Five Hundred Years of Exodus|first=Yale|last=Strom|date=30 September 1992|publisher=SP Books|via=Archive.org|isbn=9781561710812}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lAAjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT199|title=Dreams Deferred: A Concise Guide to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict and the Movement to Boycott Israel|first=CARY R.|last=NELSON|date=11 July 2016|publisher=Indiana University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780253025180}}</ref> Approximately 3,000,000 Muslims fled or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamic Encounters |url=https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/islamic/pages/spain.html |access-date=2023-05-25 |website=www.brown.edu |publisher=[[Brown University]] |quote=Between 1492 and 1610, some 3,000,000 Muslims voluntarily left or were expelled from Spain, resettling in North Africa. |archive-date=13 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713195143/https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/islamic/pages/spain.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLKS69FKHkYC&pg=PA74|title=Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews|first=David Martin|last=Gitlitz|date=30 September 2002|publisher=UNM Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780826328137}}</ref> The Jews were also [[Expulsion of the Jews from Sicily|expelled from Sicily]] and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Jewish Time Line Encyclopedia: A Year-by-Year History From Creation to the Present |publisher=Jason Aronson, Incorporated |isbn=9781461631491 |page=178|date=December 1993 }}</ref>

In 1497, King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave. That same year he [[Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal|expelled]] all Muslims that were not slaves,<ref>{{cite book |title=Latin America in Colonial Times |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108416405 |page=27}}</ref> and in 1502 the [[Catholic Monarchs]] followed suit, imposing the choice of [[Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain|conversion to Christianity]] or exile and loss of property. Many Jews and Muslims fled to [[North Africa]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as [[Marrano]]s and [[Morisco]]s (after the old term ''Moors'').<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eLFBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214|title=A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities throughout History|first=Brian A.|last=Pavlac|date=19 February 2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781442237681|via=Google Books}}</ref> However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately [[expulsion of the Moriscos|forcibly expelled]] from Spain in the early 17th century. From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwAmCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA622|title=Notes on Entering Deen Completely: Islam as its followers know it|first=Talib|last=Jaleel|date=11 July 2015|publisher=EDC Foundation|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Majid |first=Anouar |url= |title=We are All Moors: Ending Centuries of Crusades Against Muslims and Other Minorities |title-link=We Are All Moors |date=30 September 2009 |publisher=U of Minnesota Press |isbn=9780816660797 }}</ref>

A series of case studies by the [[Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs]] at [[Harvard University]] demonstrated that the change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the [[Hispanic Monarchy (political entity)|Hispanic Monarchy]] in the late 15th century was one of the few cases of avoidance of the [[Thucydides Trap]].<ref name="Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs 1939 l047">{{cite web | title=Special Initiative: Thucydides Trap | website=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs | date=September 3, 1939 | url=https://www.belfercenter.org/thucydides-trap/case-file | access-date=January 12, 2024 | archive-date=5 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705234915/https://www.belfercenter.org/thucydides-trap/case-file | url-status=dead }}</ref>