Editing History of music (section)

==Post-classical era==
{{further|Central Asian and Chinese music}}

===Japanese ''gagaku'' music===
{{main|Gagaku}}
The imperial court of Japan developed ''[[gagaku]]'' (({{lang|zh|雅楽}}); {{lit|elegant music}}) music, originating from the ''Gagakuryō'' imperial music academy established in 701 CE during the [[Asuka period]].{{sfn|Nelson|2016|p=36}} Though the word ''gagaku'' derives from the Chinese ''yayue'' music, the latter originally referred to Confucian ritual music, while ''gagaku'' extends to many genres, styles and instruments.{{sfn|Nelson|2016|p=36}}{{sfn|Marett|2001|loc="1. History"}}{{refn|The musicologist Allan Marett noted, however, that by the time of ''[[gagaku]]'' music in the early 8th century, contemporary Chinese ''yayue'' music had adopted wide influences and genres, making it similar to the stylistic-variety of ''gagaku''.{{sfn|Marett|2001|loc="1. History"}}|group=n}} In the tradition's early history, the three main genres were ''wagaku'' (native Japanese music), ''sankangaku'' (music from the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]) and ''tōgaku'' (music from China's [[Tang dynasty]]), as well as more minor genres such as ''toragaku'', ''gigaku'', and ''rin’yūgaku''. Uniquely among Asian music of this time, there are numerous extant scores of ''gagaku'' music from the 8th to 11th centuries.{{sfn|Marett|2001|loc="1. History"}}

A major shift in ''gagaku'' music occurred in the 9th century, namely the development of a distinction between ''[[tōgaku]]'' and ''[[komagaku]]'' music. ''Tōgaku'' was a Chinese-influenced style, which combined with the ''rin’yūgaku'' tradition, referred to as "Music of the Left" (''sahō''). ''Komagaku'' was then referred to as "Music of the Right" (''uhō''), encompassing music influenced by both Korea (''sankangaku'') and [[Balhae]] (''bokkaigaku''). Though this division was prominent, it was not strict and the ''tōgaku'' and ''komagaku'' styles nonetheless interlaced and influenced each other.{{sfn|Marett|2001|loc="1. History"}} The long [[Heian period]] (794–1185) saw much patronage of ''gagaku'' music from the court, as it accompanied many festivals and celebrations. Numerous new genres emerged at this time, such as the ''[[saibara]]'' and ''[[rōei]]'' song forms.{{sfn|Marett|2001|loc="1. History"}}{{sfn|Harich-Schneider|1957–1958|pp=183–185}} ''Gagaku'' ensembles consist of a wide variety of instruments and are the largest such formations in [[traditional Japanese music]].{{sfn|Wade|2005|p=24}}

===Medieval Europe===
{{Main|Medieval music}}
{{see also|List of medieval composers|List of medieval music theorists|List of medieval musical instruments}}
[[File:Perotin - Alleluia nativitas.jpg|thumb|''Alleluia nativitas'' by [[Perotin]] from the Codex Guelf.1099]]
Modern scholars generally define '[[Medieval music]]' as the music of [[Western Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]],{{sfn|Wolinski|Borders|2020|loc="Introduction"}} from approximately the 6th to 15th centuries. Music was certainly prominent in the [[Early Middle Ages]], as attested by artistic depictions of instruments, writings about music, and other records; however, the only repertory of music which has survived from before 800 to the present day is the [[plainsong]] liturgical music of the Roman Catholic Church, the largest part of which is called [[Gregorian chant]]. [[Pope Gregory I]], who gave his name to the musical repertory and may himself have been a composer, is usually claimed to be the originator of the musical portion of the liturgy in its present form, though the sources giving details on his contribution date from more than a hundred years after his death. Many scholars believe that his reputation has been exaggerated by legend. Most of the chant repertory was composed anonymously in the centuries between the time of Gregory and [[Charlemagne]].

During the 9th century, several important developments took place. First, there was a major effort by the Church to unify the many chant traditions and suppress many of them in favor of the Gregorian liturgy. Second, the earliest [[polyphony|polyphonic]] music was sung, a form of parallel singing known as [[organum]]. Third, and of the greatest significance for music history, [[music notation|notation]] was reinvented after a lapse of about five hundred years, though it would be several more centuries before a system of pitch and rhythm notation evolved having the precision and flexibility that modern musicians take for granted.

Several schools of polyphony flourished in the period after 1100: the [[St. Martial school]] of organum, the music of which was often characterized by a swiftly moving part over a single sustained line; the [[Notre Dame school]] of polyphony, which included the composers [[Léonin]] and [[Pérotin]], and which produced the first music for more than two parts around 1200; the musical melting-pot of [[Santiago de Compostela]] in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], a pilgrimage destination and site where musicians from many traditions came together in the late Middle Ages, the music of whom survives in the [[Codex Calixtinus]]; and the English school, the music of which survives in the [[Worcester Fragments]] and the [[Old Hall Manuscript]]. Alongside these schools of sacred music a vibrant tradition of the secular song developed, as exemplified in the music of the [[troubadour]]s, [[trouvère]]s, and [[minnesinger|Minnesänger]]. Much of the later secular music of the early [[Renaissance]] evolved from the forms, ideas, and the musical aesthetic of the troubadours, courtly poets, and itinerant musicians, whose culture was largely exterminated during the [[Albigensian Crusade]] in the early 13th century.

Forms of sacred music which developed during the late 13th century included the [[motet]], [[conductus]], [[discant]], and [[Clausula (music)|clausulae]]. One unusual development was the ''[[Geisslerlieder]]'', the music of wandering bands of [[flagellant]]s during two periods: the middle of the 13th century (until they were suppressed by the Church); and the period during and immediately following the [[Black Death]], around 1350, when their activities were vividly recorded and well-documented with notated music. Their music mixed folk song styles with penitential or apocalyptic texts. The 14th century in European music history is dominated by the style of the ''[[ars nova]]'', which by convention is grouped with the medieval era in music, even though it had much in common with early Renaissance ideals and [[aesthetics]]. Much of the surviving music of the time is secular, and tends to use the [[formes fixes]]: the [[ballade (forme fixe)|ballade]], the [[virelai]], the [[Lai (poetic form)|lai]], the [[Rondeau (music)|rondeau]], which correspond to poetic forms of the same names. Most pieces in these forms are for one to three voices, likely with instrumental accompaniment: famous composers include [[Guillaume de Machaut]] and [[Francesco Landini]].

===Byzantine===
{{Main|Byzantine music}}
{{see also|List of Byzantine composers}}
[[Byzantine music|Prominent and diverse musical practices]] were present in the [[Byzantine Empire]], which existed by 395 to 1453.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Byzantine Empire &#124; History, Geography, Maps & Facts |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=Chicago |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire |access-date=2 October 2021 |last=Nicol |first=Donald MacGillivray |date=21 September 2021 |author-link=Donald Nicol |quote=When did the Byzantine Empire exist?: The Byzantine Empire existed from approximately 395 CE—when the Roman Empire was split—to 1453.}}</ref> Both sacred and secular music were commonplace, with [[sacred music]] frequently used in church services and [[secular music]] in many events including, ceremonies dramas, ballets, banquets, festivals and sports games.{{sfn|Levy|2001}}{{sfn|Touliatos|2001}} However, despite its popularity, secular Byzantine music was harshly criticized by the [[Church Fathers]], particularly [[Jerome]].{{sfn|Touliatos|2001}} Composers of sacred music, especially hymns and chants, are generally well documented throughout the history of Byzantine music. However, those before the reign of [[Justinian I]] are virtually unknown; the monks Anthimos, Auxentios and Timokles are said to have written [[troparia]], but only the text to a single one by Auxentios survives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalfe |first=William |url={{google books|plainurl=y|dlIcAQAAIAAJ}} |title=The Scottish Review |publisher=Alexander Gardner |year=1898 |volume=XXXII |page=302}}</ref> The first major form was the [[kontakion]], of which [[Romanos the Melodist]] was the foremost composer.{{sfn|Levy|2001|loc="10. Syllabic hymn settings: (ii) Kontakion"}} In the late 7th century the [[Canon (hymnography)|kanōn]] overtook the kontakion in popularity; [[Andrew of Crete]] became its first significant composer, and is traditionally credited as the genre's originator,{{sfn|Levy|2001|loc="10. Syllabic hymn settings: (iii) Kanōn"}} though modern scholars now doubt this attribution.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Andrew of Crete |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000000894 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.00894 |author=[[Enrica Follieri|Follieri, Enrica]] |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription}} {{Grove Music subscription}}</ref> The kañon reached its peak with the music of [[John of Damascus]] and [[Cosmas of Maiuma]] and later [[Theodore of Stoudios]] and [[Theophanes the Branded]] in the 8th and 9th centuries respectively.{{sfn|Levy|2001}} Composers of secular music are considerably less documented. Not until late in the empire's history are composers known by name, with [[Joannes Koukouzeles]], [[Xenos Korones]] and [[Joannes Glykys]] as the leading figures.{{sfn|Touliatos|2001|loc="3. Genres and composers."}}

Like their Western counterparts of the same period, Byzantine composers were primarily men.{{sfn|Touliatos-Banker|1984|p=62}} [[Kassia]] is a major exception to this; she was a prolific and important composer of [[sticheron]] hymns and the only woman whose works entered the [[Byzantine liturgy]].{{sfn|Mellas|2020|pp=147–148}} A few other women are known to have been composers, Thekla, Theodosia, Martha and the daughter of [[John Kladas]] (her given name is unrecorded).{{sfn|Touliatos-Banker|1984|p=80}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Touliatos |first=Diane |title=Rediscovering the Muses: Women's Musical Traditions |publisher=[[Northeastern University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55553-219-2 |editor-last=Marshall |editor-first=Kimberly |editor-link=Kimberly Marshall |location=Boston |page=119 |chapter=The Traditional Role of Greek Women in Music from Antiquity to the End of the Byzantine Empire}}</ref> Only the latter has any surviving work, a single [[antiphon]].{{sfn|Touliatos-Banker|1984|p=63}} Some [[Byzantine emperor]]s are known to have been composers, such as [[Leo VI the Wise]] and [[Constantine VII]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2017 |title=Leo VI |encyclopedia=[[World History Encyclopedia]] |location=Horsham |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/ |last=Cartwright |first=Mark}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Constantine VII Porphyrogennetus |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000006331 |last=Troelsgård |first=Christian |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.06331 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription}} {{Grove Music subscription}}</ref>