Editing History of Poland (section)

==Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth==

{{further|History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
[[File:Truce of Deulino 1618-1619.PNG|upright=1.35|thumb|right|The [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at its greatest extent, after the [[Truce of Deulino]] of 1619]]

===Establishment (1569–1648)===

{{further|History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)}}

====Union of Lublin====

The [[Union of Lublin]] of 1569 established the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], a federal state more closely unified than the earlier political arrangement between Poland and Lithuania. The union was run largely by the nobility through the system of [[Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|central parliament]] and [[sejmik|local assemblies]], but was headed by [[elective monarchy|elected kings]]. The formal rule of the nobility, who were proportionally more numerous than in other European countries, constituted an early democratic system ("a sophisticated noble democracy"),<ref name="Overy 176-177">{{Harvnb|Overy|2010|pp=176–177}}.</ref> in contrast to the [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]] prevalent at that time in the rest of Europe.<ref name="Europe 555">{{Harvnb|Davies|1996|p=555}}.</ref>

The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with a period in Polish history when great political power was attained and advancements in civilization and prosperity took place. The Polish–Lithuanian Union became an influential participant in European affairs and a vital cultural entity that spread [[Western culture]] (with [[Polonization|Polish characteristics]]) eastward. In the second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in contemporary Europe, with an area approaching {{convert|1|e6km2|spell=in|lk=out|abbr=off}} and a population of about ten million. Its economy was dominated by export-focused agriculture. Nationwide religious toleration was guaranteed at the [[Warsaw Confederation]] in 1573.<ref name="playground I xxix">{{Harvnb|Davies|2005a|p=xxix}}</ref>

====First elective kings====
[[File:France-001615 - King Henri III (15291221709) (2).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Henry III of France|Henry de Valois]], later Henry III of [[France]], was the first elected Polish king in 1573]]
After the rule of the Jagiellonian dynasty ended in 1572, Henry of Valois (later King [[Henry III of France]]) was the winner of the first "[[Royal elections in Poland|free election]]" by the Polish nobility, held in 1573. He had to agree to the restrictive ''[[pacta conventa]]'' obligations and fled Poland in 1574 when news arrived of the vacancy of the French throne, to which he was the [[heir presumptive]].<ref name="playground I xxix"/> From the start, the royal elections increased foreign influence in the Commonwealth as foreign powers sought to manipulate the Polish nobility to place candidates amicable to their interests.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=109–116}}.</ref> The reign of [[Stephen Báthory]] of Hungary followed (r. 1576–1586). He was militarily and domestically assertive and is revered in Polish historical tradition as a rare case of a successful elective king.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> The establishment of the legal [[Crown Tribunal]] in 1578 meant a transfer of many appellate cases from the royal to noble jurisdiction.<ref name="playground I xxix"/>

====First kings of the Vasa dynasty====

[[File:Sigismund at horse.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Sigismund III Vasa]] enjoyed a long reign, but his actions against religious minorities, expansionist ideas and involvement in dynastic affairs of Sweden, destabilized the Commonwealth.]]

A period of rule under the Swedish [[House of Vasa]] began in the Commonwealth in the year 1587. The first two kings from this dynasty, [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]] (r. 1587–1632) and [[Władysław IV Vasa|Władysław IV]] (r. 1632–1648), repeatedly attempted to intrigue for accession to the throne of Sweden, which was a constant source of distraction for the affairs of the Commonwealth.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> At that time, the [[Catholic Church]] embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and the [[Counter-Reformation]] claimed many [[Counter-Reformation in Poland|converts from Polish and Lithuanian Protestant circles]]. In 1596, the [[Union of Brest]] split the [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christians]] of the Commonwealth to create the [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Uniate Church]] of the Eastern Rite, but subject to the authority of the pope.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> The [[Zebrzydowski rebellion]] against Sigismund III unfolded in 1606–1608.<ref name="playground I xxix"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=130–146}}.</ref>

Seeking supremacy in Eastern Europe, the Commonwealth fought wars with [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]] between 1605 and 1618 in the wake of Russia's [[Time of Troubles]]; the series of conflicts is referred to as the [[Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)|Polish–Russian War]] or the ''Dymitriads''. The efforts resulted in expansion of the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but the goal of taking over the Russian throne for the Polish ruling dynasty was not achieved. [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] sought supremacy in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] during the [[Polish–Swedish wars]] of 1617–1629, and the [[Ottoman Empire]] pressed from the south in the Battles at [[Battle of Cecora (1620)|Cecora]] in 1620 and [[Battle of Khotyn (1621)|Khotyn]] in 1621.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> The agricultural expansion and [[serfdom in Poland|serfdom]] policies in Polish Ukraine resulted in a series of [[Cossack uprisings]]. Allied with the [[Habsburg monarchy]], the Commonwealth did not directly participate in the [[Thirty Years' War]].{{Ref label|s|s|none}} Władysław's IV reign was mostly peaceful, with a Russian invasion in the form of the [[Smolensk War]] of 1632–1634 successfully repelled.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] hierarchy, banned in Poland after the Union of Brest, was re-established in 1635.<ref name="playground I xxix"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=146–173}}.</ref>

===Decline (1648–1764)===

{{further|History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)}}

====Deluge of wars====

During the reign of [[John II Casimir Vasa]] (r. 1648–1668), the third and last king of his dynasty, the nobles' democracy fell into decline as a result of foreign invasions and domestic disorder.<ref name="playground I xxix"/><ref name="Gierowski(a) 190-219">{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=190–219}}.</ref> These calamities multiplied rather suddenly and marked the end of the [[Polish Golden Age]].  Their effect was to render the once powerful Commonwealth increasingly vulnerable to foreign intervention.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}{{original research inline|date=January 2023}}

[[File:John II Casimir Vasa 1.PNG|thumb|right|upright|[[John II Casimir Vasa]] reigned during the Commonwealth's most difficult period. Frustrated with his inability to reform the state, he abdicated in 1668.<ref name="Polska urojona">{{Harvnb|Wodecka|2013}}.</ref>]]

The [[Zaporozhian Cossacks|Cossack]] [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] of 1648–1657 engulfed the south-eastern regions of the Polish crown;<ref name="playground I xxix"/> its long-term effects were disastrous for the Commonwealth. The first ''[[liberum veto]]'' (a parliamentary device that allowed any member of the Sejm to dissolve a current session immediately) was exercised by a deputy in 1652.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> This practice would eventually weaken Poland's central government critically. In the [[Pereyaslav Council|Treaty of Pereyaslav]] (1654), the Ukrainian rebels declared themselves subjects of the [[Tsardom of Russia|Tsar of Russia]]. The [[Second Northern War]] raged through the core Polish lands in 1655–1660; it included a brutal and devastating invasion of Poland referred to as the [[Deluge (history)|Swedish Deluge]]. The war ended in 1660 with the [[Treaty of Oliva]],<ref name="playground I xxix"/> which resulted in the loss of some of Poland's northern possessions. In 1657 the [[Treaty of Bromberg]] established the independence of the [[Duchy of Prussia]].<ref name="playground I xxix"/> The Commonwealth forces did well in the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]], but the result was the permanent division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia, as agreed to in the [[Truce of Andrusovo]] (1667).<ref name="playground I xxix"/> Towards the end of the war, the [[Lubomirski's rebellion]], a major magnate revolt against the king, destabilized and weakened the country. The large-scale [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slave raids]] of the [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatars]] also had highly deleterious effects on the Polish economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Williams|2013|p=27}}.</ref> ''[[Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny|Merkuriusz Polski]]'', the first Polish newspaper, was published in 1661.<ref name="playground I xxix"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=220–240}}.</ref>

In 1668, grief-stricken at the recent death of his wife and frustrated by the disastrous political setbacks of his reign, John II Casimir abdicated the throne and fled to [[Early modern France|France]].{{Ref label|z|z|none}}

====John III Sobieski and last military victories====

[[File:Siemiginowski John III Sobieski with his son.jpg|thumb|left|upright|King [[John III Sobieski]] with his son [[James Louis Sobieski|Jakub]], whom he tried to position to be his successor. Sobieski led the Commonwealth to its [[Battle of Vienna|last great military victories]].]]

King [[Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki]], a native Pole, was elected to replace John II Casimir in 1669. The [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676)]] broke out during his reign, which lasted until 1673,  and continued under his successor, [[John III Sobieski]] (r. 1674–1696).<ref name="playground I xxix"/> Sobieski intended to pursue Baltic area expansion (and to this end he signed the secret [[Treaty of Jaworów]] with France in 1675),<ref name="playground I xxix"/> but was forced instead to fight protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire. By doing so, Sobieski briefly revived the Commonwealth's military might. He defeated the expanding [[Muslim]]s at the [[Battle of Khotyn (1673)|Battle of Khotyn]] in 1673 and decisively helped deliver Vienna from a [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] onslaught at the [[Battle of Vienna]] in 1683.<ref name="playground I xxix"/> Sobieski's reign marked the last high point in the history of the Commonwealth: in the first half of the 18th century, Poland ceased to be an active player in international politics. The [[Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686)]] with Russia was the final border settlement between the two countries before the [[First Partition of Poland]] in 1772.<ref name="playground I xxix"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=240–258}}.</ref>

The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered enormous population losses and massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective in the wake of large-scale internal conflicts, corrupted legislative processes and manipulation by foreign interests.{{synthesis inline|date=January 2023}} The nobility fell under the control of a handful of feuding magnate families with established territorial domains. The urban population and infrastructure fell into ruin, together with most peasant farms, whose inhabitants were subjected to increasingly extreme forms of serfdom. The development of science, culture and education came to a halt or regressed.<ref name="Gierowski(a) 190-219"/>

====Saxon kings====

[[File:August der Starke.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Augustus II the Strong]], the first [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxon]] ruler of Poland. His death sparked the [[War of the Polish Succession]].]]

The royal election of 1697 brought a ruler of the [[Saxony|Saxon]] [[House of Wettin]] to the Polish throne: [[Augustus II the Strong]] (r. 1697–1733), who was able to assume the throne only by agreeing to convert to Roman Catholicism.  He was succeeded by his son [[Augustus III of Poland|Augustus III]] (r. 1734–1763).<ref name="playground I xxix"/>  The reigns of the Saxon kings (who were both simultaneously [[prince-elector]]s of [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]]) were disrupted by competing candidates for the throne and witnessed further disintegration of the Commonwealth.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

The [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721,<ref name="playground I xxix"/>  a period seen by the contemporaries as a temporary eclipse, may have been the fatal blow that brought down the Polish political system. [[Stanisław Leszczyński]] was installed as king in 1704 under Swedish protection, but lasted only a few years.<ref name="playground I 374–375">{{Harvnb|Davies|2005a|pp=374–375}}</ref> The [[Silent Sejm]] of 1717 marked the beginning of the Commonwealth's existence as a [[Tsardom of Russia|Russian]] protectorate:<ref name="playground I 375–377">{{Harvnb|Davies|2005a|pp=375–377}}</ref> the Tsardom would guarantee the reform-impeding [[Golden Liberty]] of the nobility from that time on in order to cement the Commonwealth's weak central authority and a state of perpetual political impotence. In a resounding break with traditions of religious tolerance, Protestants were executed during the [[Tumult of Thorn (Toruń)|Tumult of Thorn]] in 1724.<ref name="playground I 139–142">{{Harvnb|Davies|2005a|pp=139–142}}</ref> In 1732, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], Poland's three increasingly powerful and scheming neighbors, entered into the secret [[Treaty of the Three Black Eagles]] with the intention of controlling the future royal succession in the Commonwealth. The [[War of the Polish Succession]] was fought in 1733–1735<ref name="playground I xxix"/> to assist Leszczyński in assuming the throne of Poland for a second time. Amidst considerable foreign involvement, his efforts were unsuccessful. The [[Kingdom of Prussia]] became a strong regional power and succeeded in wresting the historically Polish province of [[Silesia]] from the [[Habsburg monarchy]] in the [[Silesian Wars]]; {{synthesis span|text=it thus constituted an ever-greater threat to Poland's security|date=January 2023}}.

The [[personal union]] between the Commonwealth and the [[Electorate of Saxony]] did give rise to the emergence of a reform movement in the Commonwealth and the beginnings of the [[Enlightenment in Poland|Polish Enlightenment]] culture, the major positive developments of this era. The first Polish public library was the [[Załuski Library]] in Warsaw, opened to the public in 1747.<ref name="playground I xxix"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986a|pp=258–301}}.</ref>

===Reforms and loss of statehood (1764–1795)===

{{further|History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)}}

====Czartoryski reforms and Stanisław August Poniatowski====

[[File:Stanisław August Poniatowski by Johann Baptist Lampi.PNG|thumb|right|upright|[[Stanisław August Poniatowski]], the "enlightened" monarch]]

During the later part of the 18th century, fundamental internal reforms were attempted in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as it slid into extinction. The reform activity, initially promoted by the magnate [[Czartoryski]] family faction known as the [[Familia (political party)|''Familia'']], provoked a hostile reaction and military response from neighboring powers, but it did create conditions that fostered economic improvement. The most populous urban center, the capital city of [[Warsaw]], replaced [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdańsk) as the leading trade center, and the importance of the more prosperous urban [[social class]]es increased. The last decades of the independent Commonwealth's existence were characterized by aggressive reform movements and far-reaching progress in the areas of education, intellectual life, art and the evolution of the social and political system.<ref name="Gierowski 1764–1864, pp. 1–60">{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986b|pp=1–60}}.</ref>

The [[Royal elections in Poland|royal election]] of 1764 resulted in the elevation of [[Stanisław August Poniatowski]],<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx">{{Harvnb|Davies|2005a|pp=xxix–xxx}}</ref> a refined and worldly aristocrat connected to the Czartoryski family, but hand-picked and imposed by Empress [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia, who expected him to be her obedient follower. Stanisław August ruled the Polish–Lithuanian state until its dissolution in 1795. The king spent his reign torn between his desire to implement reforms necessary to save the failing state and the perceived necessity of remaining in a subordinate relationship to his Russian sponsors.<ref name="Gierowski 1764–1864, pp. 60–66">{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986b|pp=60–66}}.</ref>

The [[Bar Confederation]] (1768–1772)<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> was a rebellion of nobles directed against Russia's influence in general and Stanisław August, who was seen as its representative, in particular. It was fought to preserve Poland's independence and the nobility's traditional interests. After several years, it was brought under control by forces loyal to the king and those of the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="Gierowski 1764–1864, pp. 66–74"/>

Following the suppression of the Bar Confederation, parts of the Commonwealth were divided up among Prussia, Austria and Russia in 1772 at the instigation of [[Frederick the Great]] of Prussia, an action that became known as the [[First Partition of Poland]]:<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> the outer provinces of the Commonwealth were seized by agreement among the country's three powerful neighbors and only a rump state remained. In 1773, the "[[Partition Sejm]]" ratified the partition under duress as a ''[[fait accompli]]''. However, it also established the [[Commission of National Education]], a pioneering in Europe education authority often called the world's first ministry of education.<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/><ref name="Gierowski 1764–1864, pp. 66–74">{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986b|pp=66–74}}.</ref>

====The Great Sejm of 1788–1791 and the Constitution of 3 May 1791====

[[File:Zaprzysiezenie Konstytucji 3 Maja 1791 (456537).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Great Sejm]] adopted the [[Constitution of 3 May 1791]] at the [[Royal Castle, Warsaw]]]]

The long-lasting session of parliament convened by King Stanisław August is known as the [[Great Sejm]] or Four-Year Sejm; it first met in 1788. Its landmark achievement was the passing of the [[Constitution of 3 May 1791]],<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> the first singular pronouncement of a supreme law of the state in modern Europe. A moderately reformist document condemned by detractors as sympathetic to the ideals of the [[French Revolution]], it soon generated strong opposition from the conservative circles of the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Empress Catherine of Russia, who was determined to prevent the rebirth of a strong Commonwealth. The nobility's [[Targowica Confederation]], formed in Russian imperial capital of [[Saint Petersburg]], appealed to Catherine for help, and in May 1792, the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth.<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> The [[Polish–Russian War of 1792]], a defensive war fought by the forces of the Commonwealth against Russian invaders, ended when the Polish king, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. The Russian-allied confederation took over the government, but Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for the [[Second Partition of Poland]] anyway. The partition left the country with a critically reduced territory that rendered it essentially incapable of an independent existence. The Commonwealth's [[Grodno Sejm]] of 1793, the last Sejm of the state's existence,<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> was compelled to confirm the new partition.<ref name="Gierowski 1764–1864, pp. 74–90">{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986b|pp=74–90}}.</ref>

====The Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 and the end of Polish–Lithuanian state====

[[File:Smuglewicz Kosciuszko 2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]'s call for a [[Kościuszko Uprising|national uprising]], [[Kraków]] 1794]]

Radicalized by recent events, Polish reformers (whether in exile or still resident in the reduced area remaining to the Commonwealth) were soon working on preparations for a national insurrection. [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], a popular general and a veteran of the [[American Revolution]], was chosen as its leader. He returned from abroad and issued [[Kościuszko's proclamation]] in [[Kraków]] on March 24, 1794. It called for a [[Kościuszko Uprising|national uprising]] under his supreme command.<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> Kościuszko emancipated many peasants in order to enroll them as ''[[kosynierzy]]'' in his army, but the hard-fought insurrection, despite widespread national support, proved incapable of generating the foreign assistance necessary for its success. In the end, it was suppressed by the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, with Warsaw captured in November 1794 in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Praga]].

[[File:Partitions of Poland.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The three [[Partitions of Poland|Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (1772, 1793, and 1795)]]

In 1795, a [[Third Partition of Poland]] was undertaken by Russia, Prussia and Austria as a final division of territory that resulted in the effective dissolution of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/> King Stanisław August Poniatowski was escorted to [[Grodno]], forced to abdicate, and retired to [[Saint Petersburg]].<ref name="playground I xxix–xxx"/><ref name="Gierowski 1764–1864, pp. 90–101">{{Harvnb|Gierowski|1986b|pp=90–101}}.</ref> Tadeusz Kościuszko, initially imprisoned, was allowed to emigrate to the [[United States]] in 1796.<ref name="Herbst 437">{{Harvnb|Herbst|1969|p=437}}.</ref>

The response of the Polish leadership to the last partition is a matter of historical debate. Literary scholars found that the dominant emotion of the first decade was despair that produced a moral desert ruled by violence and treason. On the other hand, historians have looked for signs of resistance to foreign rule. Apart from those who went into exile, the nobility took oaths of loyalty to their new rulers and served as officers in their armies.<ref>{{Harnvb|Czubaty|2009|pp=95–109}}.</ref>