Editing History of Guatemala (section)

==== Annexation of Los Altos ====
{{Main|Los Altos, Central America}}

[[File:Carrerayturcios 2014-06-22 09-46.jpg|thumb|Captain General [[Rafael Carrera]] after being appointed president for Life of the Republic of Guatemala in 1854]]
[[File:Escudoaltos 2014-06-16 06-59.jpg|thumb|Coat of arms of the state of [[Los Altos (state)|Los Altos]], carved in stone on the grave of heroes at the Cemetery of [[Quetzaltenango]]]]

On 2 April 1838, in the city of [[Quetzaltenango]], a secessionist group founded the independent [[Los Altos (country)|State of Los Altos]], which sought independence from Guatemala. The most prominent members of the Liberal Party of Guatemala and liberal opponents of the conservative regime moved to Los Altos, leaving their exile in El Salvador.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=29 January}} The liberals in Los Altos began to criticize the Conservative government of Rivera Paz severely; they even had their own newspaper, ''El Popular'', which contributed to the harsh criticism.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=29 January}}

Los Altos was the region with the primary production and economic activity of the former state of Guatemala. Without Los Altos, the conservatives lost much of the resources that had given Guatemala hegemony in Central America.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=29 January}} The Guatemalan government initially sought a peaceful resolution, but the people of Los Altos,<ref group=lower-alpha>"Altenses" (in English: highlanders) is how people from Quetzaltenango are known in Guatemala.</ref> protected by the recognition of the Central American Federation Congress, refused to negotiate. The Guatemalan government then resorted to force, sending Carrera as commanding general of the army to subdue Los Altos.

Carrera defeated General Agustín Guzmán when the former Mexican officer attempted to ambush him and then proceeded to [[Quetzaltenango]], where he imposed a harsh conservative regime in place of the liberals. He summoned all council members and warned them that while he was lenient this time, there would be no mercy if they defied him again.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=140}} Finally, Guzmán and the head of state of Los Altos, Marcelo Molina, were sent to the capital of Guatemala, where they were displayed as trophies of war during a triumphant parade on 17 February 1840; Guzmán was shackled, still with bleeding wounds, and riding a mule.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=29 January}}

[[File:General Francisco Morazán.JPG|thumb|General [[Francisco Morazán]]]]

On 18 March 1840, liberal caudillo Morazán invaded Guatemala with 1,500 soldiers to avenge the insult done in Los Altos. Fearing that this action might end liberal efforts to maintain the Central American Federation, Guatemala established a cordon of guards along the border with El Salvador. Without a telegraph service, messengers carried last-minute updates.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=16 March}} With the information from these messengers, Carrera devised a defense plan, leaving his brother Sotero in charge of troops who offered only slight resistance in the city.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|pp=148–154}} Carrera pretended to flee, leading his ragtag army to the heights of Aceituno with few men, rifles, and two old cannons. The city was left at the mercy of Morazán's army, with bells from twenty churches ringing for divine assistance.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=16 March}}

Once Morazán reached the capital, he took it easily and freed Guzman, who immediately went to Quetzaltenango to announce Carrera's defeat.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|pp=148–154}} Carrera, exploiting his enemies' assumptions, concentrated fire on Central Park and employed surprise attack tactics, causing heavy casualties to Morazán's army and forcing the survivors to fight for their lives.<ref group=lower-alpha>Among those fighting in these battles was the famous Guatemalan poet [[José Batres Montúfar]].</ref>{{sfn|Marroquín Rojas|1971}} Morazán's soldiers lost their initiative and previous numerical superiority. In unfamiliar surroundings, they had to fight, carry their dead, and care for their wounded while being resentful and tired from the long march from [[El Salvador]] to Guatemala.{{sfn|Marroquín Rojas|1971}}

Carrera, an experienced military leader, was able to defeat Morazán thoroughly. The defeat was complete for the liberal general: aided by Angel Molina—son of Guatemalan Liberal leader [[Pedro Molina Mazariegos]]—who knew the city's streets, Morazán fled disguised, shouting "Long live Carrera!" through the ravine of "El Incienso" to El Salvador.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=16 March}} In his absence, Morazán was replaced as Head of State and had to go into exile in [[Peru]].{{sfn|Marroquín Rojas|1971}} In Guatemala, survivors from his troops were shot without mercy, while Carrera unsuccessfully pursued Morazán. This engagement solidified Carrera's position and marked the decline of Morazán,{{sfn|Hernández de León|1959|p=16 March}} and forced the conservative Aycinena clan [[criollo people|criollo]]s to negotiate with Carrera and his peasant revolutionary supporters.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=158}}

Guzmán, who had been freed by Morazán after the latter's apparent victory over Carrera in [[Guatemala City]], returned to Quetzaltenango to bring the good news. The city's liberal criollo leaders swiftly reinstated the State of Los Altos and celebrated Morazán's success. However, upon hearing this, Carrera and the newly reinstated [[Mariano Rivera Paz]] quickly moved to reclaim control over the rebel liberal state. Carrera, with his volunteer army, returned to Quetzaltenango to reassert authority.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=155}} On 2 April 1840, after entering the city, Carrera reminded the citizens that he had previously warned them after his earlier victory. He then ordered the execution of most of the liberal city hall officials from Los Altos and forcibly annexed Quetzaltenango and much of Los Altos back into conservative Guatemala.{{sfn|Taracena|2011|pp=240–241}}

Following the violent reinstatement of Los Altos by Carrera in April 1840, [[Luis Batres Juarros]], a conservative member of the Aycinena Clan and secretary general of the Guatemalan government under the recently reinstated [[Mariano Rivera Paz]], obtained authorization from Vicar Larrazabal to dismantle the regionalist Church. Priests from [[Quetzaltenango]]—the capital of the short-lived State of Los Altos—including Urban Ugarte and his coadjutor José Maria Aguilar, as well as priests from [[San Martin Jilotepeque]] and [[San Lucas Tolimán]], were removed from their parishes. Larrazabal assigned priests Fernando Antonio Dávila, Mariano Navarrete, and José Ignacio Iturrioz to cover the parishes of Quetzaltenango, San Martin Jilotepeque, and San Lucas Tolimán, respectively.{{sfn|Taracena|2011|pp=240–241}}

The defeat and execution of the liberal criollos in Quetzaltenango bolstered Carrera's standing with the local population, whom he respected and protected.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=158}}

In 1840, Belgium began supporting Carrera's independence movement as a means to exert influence in Central America. The ''Compagnie belge de colonisation'' (Belgian Colonization Company), commissioned by Belgian King [[Leopold I of Belgium|Leopold I]], became the administrator of [[Santo Tomas de Castilla]],{{sfn|Compagnie Belge de Colonisation|1844}} replacing the unsuccessful British [[Eastern Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company]].{{sfn|Compagnie Belge de Colonisation|1844}} Although the colony eventually failed, Belgium continued to support Carrera into the mid-19th century, though Britain remained the primary business and political partner for Carrera.{{sfn|Woodward|1993|p=498}}

Rafael Carrera was elected Governor of Guatemala in 1844. On 21 March 1847, Guatemala declared itself an independent republic, and Carrera became its first president.

[[File:Carrerafundador.jpg|thumb|General Carrera, portrait celebrating the foundation of the Republic of Guatemala in 1847]]
[[File:Guatemala Real 1847 Silver Coin Fonrobert 7236.jpg|thumb|Proclamation coin from 1847 of the independent Republic of Guatemala]]

During his first term as president, Carrera shifted the country from extreme conservatism to a more traditional moderation. In 1848, after months of turmoil, the liberals managed to oust him from office.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1930}}{{sfn|Miceli|1974|p=72}} Carrera willingly resigned and left for Mexico. The new liberal regime, aligned with the Aycinena family, quickly passed a law sentencing Carrera to death if he returned to Guatemalan soil.{{sfn|Hernández de León|1930}} In [[Quetzaltenango]], liberal criollos, led by General [[Agustín Guzmán]], took control after Corregidor General [[Mariano Paredes (Guatemala)|Mariano Paredes]] was called to [[Guatemala City]] to assume the presidency.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=270}} On 26 August 1848, they declared Los Altos an independent state once again, with support from Vasconcelos' regime in [[El Salvador]] and the rebel guerrilla army led by Vicente and Serapio Cruz, sworn enemies of Carrera.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|pp=270–271}} The interim government, headed by Guzmán, included Florencio Molina and the priest Fernando Dávila as Cabinet members.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=271}} On 5 September 1848, the altenses criollos elected a formal government under Fernando Antonio Martínez.

Meanwhile, Carrera returned to Guatemala through [[Huehuetenango]], where he met native leaders and urged them to unite to prevail. The leaders agreed, and gradually, the segregated native communities began developing a new [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]] identity under Carrera's leadership.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=275}} In the eastern region of Guatemala, particularly Jalapa, tensions escalated; former president [[Mariano Rivera Paz]] and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were both murdered there in 1849 while attempting to take over the Corregidor office.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=275}}

Upon Carrera's arrival in [[Chiantla]], [[Huehuetenango]], two emissaries from Los Altos informed him that their soldiers would not fight his forces, fearing an indigenous revolt similar to the one in 1840. They only requested that Carrera keep the indigenous people under control.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=275}} However, the altenses did not comply, and led by Guzmán, they began pursuing Carrera, who, with the help of his native allies, went into hiding and remained under their protection while [[Miguel García Granados]]’ forces searched for him.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=275}}

Upon learning that officer [[José Víctor Zavala]] had been appointed Corregidor of [[Suchitepéquez Department]], Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed a dangerous, jaguar-infested jungle to meet his former friend. When they met, Zavala not only refrained from capturing him but also agreed to serve under his command, sending a strong message to both liberals and conservatives in Guatemala City that they would either have to negotiate with Carrera or fight on two fronts—Quetzaltenango and Jalapa.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=278}} Carrera returned to the Quetzaltenango area while Zavala remained in Suchitepéquez as a tactical maneuver.{{sfn|González Davison|2008}} Carrera received a visit from a Cabinet member of Paredes and assured him that he had control over the native population, promising Paredes that he would keep them appeased.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=278}} When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he reported that Carrera had significant control over the natives and described their forces as formidable.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=279}}

Guzmán went to [[Antigua Guatemala]] to meet with another group of Paredes emissaries. They agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala and that the latter would help Guzmán defeat his hated enemy and build a port on the Pacific Ocean.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=279}} Guzmán felt confident in his plan, but it fell apart when, in his absence, Carrera and his native allies occupied Quetzaltenango. Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and persuaded him to collaborate with the K'iche', Mam, and Q'anjobal leaders to maintain control of the region.{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=280}} As Yrigoyen departed, he remarked to a friend, "Now he is truly the King of the Indians!"{{sfn|González Davison|2008|p=280}}

Guzmán then traveled to Jalapa, where he struck a deal with the rebels. Meanwhile, [[Luis Batres Juarros]] convinced President Paredes to negotiate with Carrera. Within months, Carrera returned to Guatemala City as commander-in-chief, supported by the military and political backing of the Indian communities from the densely populated western highlands.{{sfn|Weaver|1999|p=138}} During his first presidency, from 1844 to 1848, Carrera transitioned the country from excessive conservatism to a moderate regime. With advice from Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and [[Pedro de Aycinena]], he restored relations with the Church in Rome through a [[Concordat of 1854|Concordat ratified in 1854]].{{sfn|Calvert|1985|p=36}} He also maintained peace between the native and criollo populations, with the criollos fearing an uprising similar to the one occurring in Yucatán at the time.{{sfn|Rugeley|1996}}