Editing Hebrew language (section)

==Phonology==
{{Further|Biblical Hebrew#Phonology|Modern Hebrew phonology}}

[[Biblical Hebrew]] had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeal {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ʕ}} {{IPA link|ħ}}/}}, a series of "emphatic" consonants (possibly [[ejective consonant|ejective]], but this is debated), lateral fricative {{IPAslink|ɬ}}, and in its older stages also uvular {{IPA|/{{IPA link|χ}} {{IPA link|ʁ}}/}}. {{IPA|/χ ʁ/}} merged into {{IPA|/ħ ʕ/}} in later Biblical Hebrew, and {{IPA|/{{IPA link|b}} {{IPA link|ɡ}} {{IPA link|d}} {{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|t}}/}} underwent allophonic spirantization to {{IPA|[{{IPA link|v}} {{IPA link|ɣ}} {{IPA link|ð}} {{IPA link|x}} {{IPA link|f}} {{IPA link|θ}}]}} (known as [[begadkefat]]). The earliest Biblical Hebrew vowel system contained the Proto-Semitic vowels {{IPA|/{{IPA link|a}} aː {{IPA link|i}} iː {{IPA link|u}} uː/}} as well as {{IPA|/{{IPA link|o}}ː/}}, but this system changed dramatically over time.

By the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, {{IPA|/ɬ/}} had shifted to {{IPAslink|s}} in the Jewish traditions, though for the Samaritans it merged with {{IPAslink|ʃ}} instead.<ref name=Qimron/> The Tiberian reading tradition of the Middle Ages had the vowel system {{IPA|/{{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|ɔ}} {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|u}} ă ɔ̆ ɛ̆/}}, though other Medieval reading traditions had fewer vowels.

A number of reading traditions have been preserved in liturgical use. In Oriental ([[Sephardi Hebrew|Sephardi]] and [[Mizrahi Hebrew|Mizrahi]]) Jewish reading traditions, the emphatic consonants are realized as pharyngealized, while the [[Ashkenazi Hebrew|Ashkenazi]] (northern and eastern European) traditions have lost emphatics and pharyngeals (although according to Ashkenazi law, pharyngeal articulation is preferred over uvular or glottal articulation when representing the community in religious service such as prayer and [[Torah reading]]), and show the shift of {{IPAslink|w}} to {{IPAslink|v}}. The [[Samaritan Hebrew|Samaritan]] tradition has a complex vowel system that does not correspond closely to the [[Tiberian vocalization|Tiberian]] systems.

Modern Hebrew pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different Jewish reading traditions, generally tending towards simplification. In line with [[Sephardi Hebrew]] pronunciation, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary counterparts, {{IPA|/w/}} to {{IPA|/v/}}, and {{IPA|[ɣ ð θ]}} are not present. Most Israelis today also merge {{IPA|/ʕ ħ/}} with {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ʔ}} {{IPA link|χ}}/}}, do not have contrastive gemination, and pronounce {{IPAslink|r}} as a uvular fricative {{IPAblink|ʁ}} or a voiced velar fricative {{IPAslink|ɣ}} rather than an alveolar trill, because of Ashkenazi Hebrew influences. The consonants {{IPAslink|tʃ}} and {{IPAslink|dʒ}} have become phonemic due to loan words, and {{IPA|/w/}} has similarly been re-introduced.

===Consonants===

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Proto-Semitic language|Proto-<br/>Semitic]]
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! colspan="5" | Hebrew
! colspan="2" | Example
|-
! style="font-size:85%" colspan="2"| written
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Biblical Hebrew|Biblical]] 
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]] 
! style="font-size:85%" | [[Modern Hebrew|Modern]]
! style="font-size:85%" | Word
! style="font-size:85%" | Meaning
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Bet (letter)|*b]]}}
! {{IPAblink|b}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ב}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|ḇ}}/{{transliteration|sem|b}}
| {{IPA|/b/}}
| {{IPA|/v/, /b/}}
| {{IPA|/v/, /b/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ב'''ית}}</big>
| house
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Dalet|*d]]}}
! {{IPAblink|d}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ד}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}/{{transliteration|sem|d}}
| {{IPA|/d/}}
| {{IPA|/ð/, /d/}}
| {{IPA|/d/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ד'''ב}}</big>
| bear
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Gimel|*g]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ג}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|ḡ}}/{{transliteration|sem|g}}
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɣ/, /ɡ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ג'''מל}}</big>
| camel
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|*p]]}}
! {{IPAblink|p}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|פ}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|p̄}}/{{transliteration|sem|p}}
| {{IPA|/p/}}
| {{IPA|/f/, /p/}}
| {{IPA|/f/, /p/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''פ'''חם}}</big>
| coal
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Taw|*t]]}}
! {{IPAblink|t}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ת}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}/{{transliteration|sem|t}}
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{IPA|/θ/, /t/}}
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ת'''מר}}</big>
| palm
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Kaph|*k]]}}
! {{IPAblink|k}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|כ}}</big><sup>3</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|ḵ}}/{{transliteration|sem|k}}
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| {{IPA|/x/, /k/}}
| {{IPA|/χ/, /k/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''כ'''ו'''כ'''ב}}</big>
| star
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Teth|*ṭ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|tʼ}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ט}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| {{IPA|/tˤ/}}
| {{IPA|/tˤ/}}
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ט'''בח}}</big>
| cook
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Qoph|*q]]}}
! {{IPAblink|kʼ}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ק}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| {{IPA|/kˤ/}}
| {{IPA|/q/}}
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ק'''בר}}</big>
| tomb
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḏāl|*ḏ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ð}} / {{IPAblink|d͡ð}}
| rowspan="2"   style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ז}}</big><sup>2</sup> || rowspan="2"| {{transliteration|sem|z}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/z/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/z/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ז'''כר}}</big>
| male
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Zayin|*z]]}}
! {{IPAblink|z}} / {{IPAblink|d͡z}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ז'''רק}}</big>
| threw
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Samekh|*s]]}}
! {{IPAblink|s}} / {{IPAblink|t͡s}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ס}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ס'''וכר}}</big>
| sugar
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*š]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʃ}} / {{IPAblink|s̠}}
| rowspan="2"   style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|שׁ}}</big><sup>2</sup> || rowspan="2"| {{transliteration|sem|š}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''שׁ'''מים}}</big>
| sky
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ṯāʾ|*ṯ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|θ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡θ}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''שׁ'''מונה}}</big>
| eight
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Shin (letter)|*ś]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɬ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡ɬ}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|שׂ}}</big><sup>1</sup> || {{transliteration|sem|ś}}
| {{IPA|/ɬ/}}
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| {{IPA|/s/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''שׂ'''מאל}}</big>
| left
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ẓāʾ|*ṱ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|θʼ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡θʼ}}
| rowspan="3"   style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|צ}}</big> || rowspan="3"| {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|/sˤ/}}
| rowspan="3"| {{IPA|/ts/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''צ'''ל}}</big>
| shadow
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Tsade|*ṣ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|sʼ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡sʼ}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''צ'''רח}}</big>
| screamed
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɬʼ}} / {{IPAblink|t͡ɬʼ}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''צ'''חק}}</big>
| laughed
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ghayn|*ġ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɣ}}~{{IPAblink|ʁ}}
| rowspan="2"   style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"|  <big>{{script|Hebr|ע}}</big>|| rowspan="2"| {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}}
| {{IPA|/ʁ/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʔ/, -}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ע'''ורב}}</big>
| raven
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ayin|*ʻ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʕ}}
| {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ע'''שׂר}}</big>
| ten
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Aleph|*ʼ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|א}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|ʼ}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ/, -}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''א'''ב}}</big>
| father
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Ḫāʾ|*ḫ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|x}}~{{IPAblink|χ}}
| rowspan="2"   style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ח}}</big><sup>2</sup> || rowspan="2"| {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| {{IPA|/χ/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/ħ/}}
| rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/χ/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ח'''משׁ}}</big>
| five
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Heth|*ḥ]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ħ}}
| {{IPA|/ħ/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ח'''בל}}</big>
| rope
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[He (letter)|*h]]}}
! {{IPAblink|h}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ה}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|h}}
| {{IPA|/h/}}
| {{IPA|/h/}}
| {{IPA|/h/, -}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ה'''גר}}</big>
| emigrated
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Mem|*m]]}}
! {{IPAblink|m}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|מ}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|m}}
| {{IPA|/m/}}
| {{IPA|/m/}}
| {{IPA|/m/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''מ'''ים}}</big>
| water
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Nun (letter)|*n]]}}
! {{IPAblink|n}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|נ}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|n}}
| {{IPA|/n/}}
| {{IPA|/n/}}
| {{IPA|/n/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''נ'''ביא}}</big>
| prophet
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Resh|*r]]}}
! {{IPAblink|ɾ}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ר}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|r}}
| {{IPA|/ɾ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɾ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʁ/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ר'''גל}}</big>
| leg
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Lamedh|*l]]}}
! {{IPAblink|l}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ל}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|l}}
| {{IPA|/l/}}
| {{IPA|/l/}}
| {{IPA|/l/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ל'''שׁון}}</big>
| tongue
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Yodh|*y]]}}
! {{IPAblink|j}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|י}}</big> || {{transliteration|sem|y}}
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''י'''ד}}</big>
| hand
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|[[Waw (letter)|*w]]}}
! {{IPAblink|w}}
|  style="text-align:center; font-size:140%;"| <big>{{script|Hebr|ו}}</big>|| {{transliteration|sem|w}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
| {{IPA|/v/}}
| <big>{{lang|he|'''ו'''רד}}</big>
| rose
|- 
! | Proto-Semitic
! | IPA
! colspan="2" | Hebrew
! style="font-size:85%"| Biblical
! style="font-size:85%"| Tiberian
! style="font-size:85%"| Modern
! colspan="2" | Example
|}

Notes:
# Proto-Semitic {{transliteration|sem|*ś}} was still pronounced as {{IPAblink|ɬ}} in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the Phoenician alphabet, so the letter <big>{{script|Hebr|ש}}</big> had two pronunciations, representing both {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ɬ/}}. Later on, however, {{IPA|/ɬ/}} merged with {{IPA|/s/}}, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of <big>{{script|Hebr|ש}}</big> were distinguished graphically in [[Tiberian Hebrew]] as <big>{{script|Hebr|שׁ}}</big> {{IPA|/ʃ/}} vs. <big>{{script|Hebr|שׂ}}</big> {{IPA|/s/}} < {{IPA|/ɬ/}}.
# Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes {{transliteration|sem|ġ}} versus {{transliteration|sem|ʻ}} and {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} versus {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}, as witnessed by transcriptions in the [[Septuagint]]. As in the case of {{IPA|/ɬ/}}, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: <big>{{script|Hebr|ח}}</big> for {{IPA|/χ/ and /ħ/}} and <big>{{script|Hebr|ע}}</big> for {{IPA|/ʁ/ and /ʕ/}}. In all of these cases, however, the sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.
# Hebrew and Aramaic underwent [[begadkefat]] spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds {{IPA|/b ɡ d k p t/}} were [[lenition|softened]] to the corresponding fricatives {{IPA|[v ɣ ð x f θ]}} (written ''ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ'') when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} disappeared in the 7th century&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Aharon Dolgopolsky |last=Dolgopolsky |first=Aron |date=1999 |title=From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew: Phonology: etymological approach in a Hamito-Semitic perspective |location=Milano |publisher=Centro Studi Camito-Semitici |page=72}}</ref> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} {{Circa|200&nbsp;BCE}}.<ref group="note">According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of {{IPA|/χ, ʁ/}} and {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}}, or else {{IPA|[x, χ]}} and {{IPA|[ɣ, ʁ]}} would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/χ/}} could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac). See {{Harvcoltxt|Blau|2010|p=56}}.</ref> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=73}}</ref> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low [[functional load]]), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<ref name=bbgd>{{cite book |last= Blau |first= Joshua |author-link= Joshua Blau |title= Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew: An Introduction |pages= 78–81 |publisher= Eisenbrauns |location= Winona Lake |series= Linguistic studies in ancient West Semitic |volume= 2 |year= 2010 |edition= revised |isbn= 978-1-57506-129-0 }} No text access via Google Books.</ref> In [[Modern Hebrew]], the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives {{IPA|/v χ f/}} are still preserved (the fricative {{IPA|/x/}} is pronounced {{IPA|/χ/}} in modern Hebrew). (The others are pronounced like the corresponding stops, as Modern Hebrew pronunciation was based on the [[Sephardic pronunciation]] which lost the distinction)