Editing Heavy water (section)

==Production by country==
===Argentina===
[[Argentina]] was the main producer of heavy water, using an ammonia/hydrogen exchange based plant supplied by Switzerland's [[Sulzer (manufacturer)|Sulzer]] company. It was also a major exporter to Canada, Germany, the US and other countries. The heavy water production facility located in [[Arroyito, Neuquén|Arroyito]] was the world's largest heavy water production facility. Argentina produced {{convert|200|ST|t|abbr=off}} of heavy water per year in 2015 using the ''monothermal ammonia-hydrogen isotopic exchange'' method.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trimodbesta.com/ru/references/references-plant-engineering.html?getFile=ApplicationInformation_BAG_201510/500_plant/AI_BAG_Arroyito_HeavyWater_LTG501EN1510_English_.pdf |title=Trimod Besta : Arroyito Heavy Water Production Plant, Argentina |website=Trimodbesta.com |access-date=11 January 2017 |archive-date=6 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006084020/http://www.trimodbesta.com/ru/references/references-plant-engineering.html?getFile=ApplicationInformation_BAG_201510/500_plant/AI_BAG_Arroyito_HeavyWater_LTG501EN1510_English_.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ecabert, R. |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:16017940 |title=The heavy water production plant at Arroyito, Arge..&#124;INIS |issue=3 |pages=21–24 |journal=Sulzer Technical Review |volume=66 |access-date=11 January 2017|year=1984 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Garcia, E.E. |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:16038740 |title=The projects for heavy water production of the Arg..&#124;INIS |pages=50–64 |journal=Energia Nuclear (Buenos Aires) |access-date=11 January 2017|year=1982 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Conde Bidabehere, Luis F. |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:33064784 |title=Heavy water. An original project in the Argentine ..&#124;INIS |website=Inis.iaea.org |access-date=11 January 2017|year=2000 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/18/096/18096007.pdf#page=441 |format=PDF |title=Selection of a Safeguards Approach for the Arroyito Heavy Water Production Plant |website=Iaea.org |access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref> Since 2017, the Arroyito plant has not been operational.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eleconomista.com.ar/actualidad/argentina-recupera-planta-industrial-agua-pesada-n54887 |title=Argentina recupera la Planta Industrial de Agua Pesada |access-date=29 December 2022}}</ref>

===United States===
During the [[Manhattan Project]] the United States constructed three heavy water production plants as part of the [[P-9 Project]] at Morgantown Ordnance Works, near [[Morgantown, West Virginia]]; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works, near Dana and [[Newport, Indiana]]; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works, near [[Childersburg, Alabama|Childersburg]] and [[Sylacauga, Alabama]]. Heavy water was also acquired from the Cominco plant in [[Trail, British Columbia]], Canada. The [[Chicago Pile-3]] experimental reactor used heavy water as a moderator and went critical in 1944.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |last=Waltham |first=Chris |date=October 2011 |title=An Early History of Heavy Water |pages=8–9|eprint=physics/0206076 }}</ref> The three domestic production plants were shut down in 1945 after producing around {{cvt|81,470|lb|kg}} of product.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Manhattan District History Book III The P-9 Project |language=English}}</ref> The Wabash plant resumed heavy water production in 1952.

In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in [[plutonium]] production reactors at the [[Savannah River Site]]. The first of the five [[Pressurized heavy-water reactor|heavy water reactors]] came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold shutdown in 1996. The reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both plutonium and tritium for the US nuclear weapons program.

The U.S. developed the [[Girdler sulfide process|Girdler sulfide]] chemical exchange production process—which was first demonstrated on a large scale at the [[Dana, Indiana]] plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Site in 1952.

===India===
India is the world's largest producer of heavy water through its [[Heavy Water Board]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Applications {{!}} Heavy Water Board, Government of India |url=https://www.hwb.gov.in/nuclear-applications |access-date=25 March 2022 |website=www.hwb.gov.in}}</ref> It exports heavy water to countries including the Republic of Korea, China, and the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Laxman |first1=Srinivas |title=Full circle: India exports heavy water to US |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/full-circle-india-exports-heavy-water-to-us/articleshow/1774012.cms |access-date=21 July 2022 |work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=PTI |first1= |title=Heavy Water Board reaches new high in export market |url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/iQNmfgnbS9FMtBH3l5IzSL/Heavy-Water-Board-reaches-new-high-in-export-market.html |access-date=21 July 2022 |agency=Livemint |date=18 March 2007}}</ref><!-- Development of heavy water process in India happened in three phases. The first phase (late 1950s to mid-1980s) was a period of technology development, the second phase included deployment of the technology and process stabilisation (mid-1980s to early 1990s), and third phase saw consolidation and a shift towards improvement in production and energy conservation.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}-->

===Norway===
{{Main|Norwegian heavy water sabotage}}
[[File:Deuterium oxide Norsk.jpg|thumb|"Heavy water" made by Norsk Hydro]]
In 1934, [[Norsk Hydro]] built the first commercial heavy water plant at [[Vemork]], [[Tinn]], eventually producing {{convert|4|kg|lb}} per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ntnu.no/forskning/kjentealumni/tronstad|title=Leif Tronstad|publisher=Norwegian University of Science and Technology|accessdate=8 March 2021|archive-date=7 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207150639/http://www.ntnu.no/forskning/kjentealumni/tronstad|url-status=dead}}</ref> From 1940 and throughout [[World War II]], the plant was under [[Nazi Germany|German]] control, and the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons. In late 1942, a planned raid called [[Operation Freshman]] by British airborne troops failed, with both gliders crashing. The raiders were killed in the crash or subsequently executed by the Germans.

On the night of 27 February 1943 [[Operation Gunnerside]] succeeded. Norwegian commandos and local resistance managed to demolish small, but key parts of the electrolytic cells, dumping the accumulated heavy water down the factory drains.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gallagher|first=Thomas|title=Assault In Norway: Sabotaging the Nazi Nuclear Program|publisher=The Lyons Press|year=2002|location=Guilford, Connecticut|isbn=978-1585747504}}</ref>

On 16 November 1943, the Allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site. The Allied air raid prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping. On 20 February 1944, a Norwegian partisan sank the ferry [[SF Hydro|M/F&nbsp;''Hydro'']] carrying heavy water across [[Lake Tinn]], at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilian lives, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost. A few of the barrels were only half full, hence buoyant, and may have been salvaged and transported to Germany.

Recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was salvaged in 2004<!--reference: documentary on PBS/Discovery Channel--> revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of [[pH]]&nbsp;14—indicative of the alkaline electrolytic refinement process—they did not contain high concentrations of D{{sub|2}}O.<ref name=NOVA>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3216_hydro.html |title=Hitler's Sunken Secret (transcript) |publisher=NOVA Web site |date=8 November 2005 |access-date=8 October 2008 |author=NOVA|author-link=Nova (American TV program) }}</ref> Despite the apparent size of the shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water was quite small, most barrels only containing 0.5–1% pure heavy water. The Germans would have needed about 5 tons of heavy water to get a nuclear reactor running.<!--reference: documentary on Nova / Hitler's Sunken Treasure--> The manifest clearly indicated that there was only half a ton of heavy water being transported to Germany. ''Hydro'' was carrying far too little heavy water for one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon.<ref name="NOVA"/> The [[German nuclear weapons program]] was much less advanced than the Manhattan Project, and no reactor constructed in Nazi Germany came close to reaching [[criticality (status)|criticality]]. No amount of heavy water would have changed that.

Israel admitted running the [[Negev Nuclear Research Center|Dimona reactor]] with Norwegian heavy water sold to it in 1959. Through re-export using Romania and Germany, India probably also used Norwegian heavy water.<ref>[http://www.wisconsinproject.org/pubs/editorials/1988/3scandals.htm "3 Scandals Oslo Must Put to Rest"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423220548/http://www.wisconsinproject.org/pubs/editorials/1988/3scandals.htm |date=23 April 2012 }}. ''[[International Herald Tribune]]'', 1988-10-07, p. 6 (14 September 1988). Retrieved from Wisconsinproject.org on 20 April 2012.</ref><ref name="Milhollin1987">{{cite journal|last1=Milhollin|first1=Gary|title=Heavy Water Cheaters|journal=Foreign Policy|issue=69|pages=100–119|year=1987|issn=0015-7228|doi=10.2307/1148590|jstor=1148590}}</ref>

===Canada===
As part of its contribution to the Manhattan Project, Canada built and operated a {{convert|1000|to|1200|lb|kg}} per month (design capacity) electrolytic heavy water plant at [[Trail, British Columbia]], which started operation in 1943.<ref>{{cite report 
| title = Manhattan District History, Book III, The P-9 Project
| url = https://www.osti.gov/includes/opennet/includes/MED_scans/Book%20III%20-%20The%20P-9%20Project.pdf
| date = 8 April 1947
| publisher = [[United States Department of Energy]]
| page = 99
| access-date = 16 February 2019}} The original design production was 1000 lbs./month, later increased to 1200 lbs./month. Maximum production was 1330 lbs./month.
</ref>

The [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy water to act as a [[neutron moderator]] and coolant. AECL ordered two heavy water plants, which were built and operated in [[Atlantic Canada]] at [[Glace Bay]], [[Nova Scotia]] (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and [[Point Tupper, Richmond County]], Nova Scotia (by Canadian General Electric). These plants proved to have significant design, construction and production problems. The Glace Bay plant reached full production in 1984 after being taken over by AECL in 1971.<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacInnis |first1=Roland |title=Hell And Heavy Water |date=2018 |publisher=Roland MacInnis |isbn=978-1720808770 |pages=38, 54 |edition=1}}</ref> The Point Tupper plant reached full production in 1974 and AECL purchased the plant in 1975.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Stanley |title=Is Making Heavy Water Painful? |date=2023 |publisher=Stanley M. Davies |isbn=9798377591016 |pages=218, 232 |edition=1 |url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0BXHQFT9T |access-date=30 January 2024}}</ref> Design changes from the Point Tupper plant were carried through as AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant ({{Coord|44.1854|-81.3618|type:landmark_region:CA|name=Bruce Heavy Water Plant|display=inline}}),<ref>Google Earth</ref> which it later sold to [[Ontario Hydro]], to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants. The two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved unnecessary.

The [[Bruce Nuclear Generating Station|Bruce Heavy Water Plant]] (BHWP) in [[Ontario]] was the world's largest heavy water production plant with a capacity of 1600 tonnes per year at its peak (800 tonnes per year per full plant, two fully operational plants at its peak). It used the [[Girdler sulfide process]] to produce heavy water, and required 340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water. It was part of a complex that included eight [[CANDU reactor]]s, which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant. The site was located at [[Douglas Point]]/[[Bruce Nuclear Generating Station]] near Tiverton, Ontario, on [[Lake Huron]] where it had access to the waters of the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]].<ref name="CSR on BHWP decommissioning">{{cite web|url=https://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/EADDB84F-docs/report_e.pdf| title=Bruce Heavy Water Plant Decommissioning Project |publisher=Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission|access-date=21 February 2018|date=March 2003}}</ref>

AECL issued the construction contract in 1969 for the first BHWP unit (BHWP A). Commissioning of BHWP A was done by Ontario Hydro from 1971 through 1973, with the plant entering service on 28 June 1973, and design production capacity being achieved in April 1974. Due to the success of BHWP A and the large amount of heavy water that would be required for the large numbers of upcoming planned CANDU nuclear power plant construction projects, Ontario Hydro commissioned three additional heavy water production plants for the [[Bruce Nuclear Generating Station|Bruce site]] (BHWP B, C, and D). BHWP B was placed into service in 1979. These first two plants were significantly more efficient than planned, and the number of CANDU construction projects ended up being significantly lower than originally planned, which led to the cancellation of construction on BHWP C & D. In 1984, BHWP A was shut down. By 1993 Ontario Hydro had produced enough heavy water to meet all of its anticipated domestic needs (which were lower than expected due to improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water), so they shut down and demolished half of the capacity of BHWP B. The remaining capacity continued to operate in order to fulfil demand for heavy water exports until it was permanently shut down in 1997, after which the plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared.<ref name="BHWP performance">{{cite book|last1=DAVIDSON|first1=G. D.|title=Separation of Hydrogen Isotopes|volume=68|date=1978|publisher=American Chemical Society|isbn=978-0841204201|pages=27–39|chapter=Bruce Heavy Water Plant Performance|doi=10.1021/bk-1978-0068.ch002|series=ACS Symposium Series}}</ref><ref name="CHWP 1970–1980">{{cite web|last1=Galley|first1=M.R.|last2=Bancroft|first2=A.R.|title=Canadian Heavy Water Production - 1970 TO 1980|url=https://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/13/680/13680421.pdf|access-date=21 February 2018|date=October 1981}}</ref>

AECL is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally benign processes for creating heavy water. This is relevant for CANDU reactors since heavy water represented about 15–20% of the total capital cost of each CANDU plant in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="CHWP 1970–1980" />

===Iran===
Since 1996 [[IR-40|a plant]] for production of heavy water was being constructed at Khondab near [[Arak, Iran|Arak]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arak - Heavy Water Production Plant |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/iran/arak-hwpp.htm |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=Global Security}}</ref> On 26 August 2006, Iranian President [[Ahmadinejad]] inaugurated the expansion of the country's heavy-water plant. Iran has indicated that the heavy-water production facility will operate in tandem with a 40 MW research reactor that had a scheduled completion date in 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/08/26/uiran.xml |title=Iran's president launches a new nuclear project |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=27 August 2006 |access-date=10 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713013652/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2006%2F08%2F26%2Fuiran.xml |archive-date=13 July 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Iran produced [[deuterated solvents]] in early 2011 for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://isna.ir/fa/news/92071711508/%D8%A2%D8%A8-%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%A9-%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C-%D8%AC%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF-%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8 |title=آب سنگین اراک، بهانه‌جویی جدید غرب – ایسنا |website=Isna.ir |date= 9 October 2013|access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref> The core of the IR-40 is supposed to be re-designed based on the [[Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action|nuclear agreement]] in July 2015.

Under the [[Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action]], Iran is permitted to store only {{convert|130|t|ST|lk=on}} of heavy water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran says it has transferred 11 tons of heavy water to Oman |url=https://www.apnews.com/daa46987ba2d4da98edfcab735aed304 |website=[[AP News]] |access-date=21 October 2018 |language=En |date=22 November 2016}}</ref> Iran exports excess production, making Iran the world's third largest exporter of heavy water.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Digest: March 8, 2016 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/world-digest-march-8-2016/2016/03/08/e4fcbee4-e53f-11e5-a6f3-21ccdbc5f74e_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=21 October 2018 |language=En |date=8 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=OEC – Heavy water (deuterium oxide) (HS92_ 284510) Product Trade, Exporters and Importers |url=https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/hs92/284510/ |website=[[The Observatory of Economic Complexity]] |access-date=21 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021095310/https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/hs92/284510/ |archive-date=21 October 2018 |url-status=live |language=En}}</ref> In 2023, Iran sells heavy water; customers have proposed a price over 1,000 dollars per liter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.farsnews.ir/en/news/14020322000167/AEOI-Spkesman-Freign-Csmers-f-Iran%27s-Heavy-Waer-Sanding-in-Line|title=AEOI Spokesman: Foreign Customers of Iran's Heavy Water Standing in Line &#124; Farsnews Agency|website=www.farsnews.ir}}</ref>

===Pakistan===

In Pakistan, there are two heavy water production sites that are based in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]. Commissioned in 1995–96, the [[Khushab Nuclear Complex]] is a central element of Pakistan's stockpile program for production of weapon-grade plutonium, deuterium, and tritium for advanced compact warheads (i.e. [[thermonuclear weapons]]). Another [[Multan Heavy Water Production Facility|heavy water facility]] for producing the heavy water is located in Multan, that it sells to nuclear power plants in [[Karachi Nuclear Power Complex|Karachi]] and [[Chashma Nuclear Power Complex|Chashma]].

In early 1980s, Pakistan succeeded in acquiring a tritium purification and storage plant and deuterium and tritium precursor materials from two [[German Democratic Republic|East German]] firms.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/facility/khushab.htm |title=Khushab Heavy Water Plant |publisher=Fas.org |access-date=14 August 2010}}</ref> Unlike India and Iran, the heavy water produced by Pakistan is not exported nor available for purchase to any nation and is solely used for its weapons complex and energy generation at its local nuclear power plants.

===Other countries===
Romania produced heavy water at the now-decommissioned [[Drobeta-Turnu Severin|Drobeta]] Girdler sulfide plant for domestic and export purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://peopletales.blogspot.com/2015/04/heavy-water-candu-reactors-and-living.html |title=History or Utopia: 45) Heavy water, nuclear reactors and... the living water |website=Peopletales.blogspot.com |access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref> France operated a small plant during the 1950s and 1960s.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}