Editing Graphite (section)

===Refractories===
The use of graphite as a [[refractory]] (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite [[crucible]]s used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of [[Refractory|refractories]]. In the mid-1980s, the carbon-[[magnesite]] brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. {{As of | 2017}} the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles.

Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite bricks requiring not quite so large flake graphite; for these and others there is now much more flexibility in the size of flake required, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories. Alumina-graphite shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as nozzles and troughs, to convey the molten steel from ladle to mold, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric-arc furnaces to withstand extreme temperatures. Graphite blocks are also used in parts of [[blast furnace]] linings<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Almeida |first1=Bruno Vidal de |last2=Neves |first2=Elton Silva |last3=Silva |first3=Sidiney Nascimento |last4=Vernilli Junior |first4=Fernando |title=Blast Furnace Hearth Lining: Post Mortem Analysis |journal=Materials Research |date=15 May 2017 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=814–818 |doi=10.1590/1980-5373-mr-2016-0875|doi-access=free }}</ref> where the high thermal conductivity of the graphite is critical to ensuring adequate cooling of the bottom and hearth of the furnace.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Yiwei |last2=Li |first2=Yawei |last3=Sang |first3=Shaobai |last4=Chen |first4=Xilai |last5=Zhao |first5=Lei |last6=Li |first6=Yuanbing |last7=Li |first7=Shujing |title=Preparation of Ceramic-Bonded Carbon Block for Blast Furnace |journal=Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A |date=January 2014 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=477–481 |doi=10.1007/s11661-013-1976-4|bibcode=2014MMTA...45..477L |s2cid=137571156 }}</ref> High-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of carbon-magnesite bricks.

The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000–2003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per [[tonne]] of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} Many of the plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by [[RHI AG]] and some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now China. Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement.

According to the [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]], US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010.<ref name=usgs/>