Editing Gender role (section)

==In sexual relationships==
{{Further|Dating#Gendered norms and preferences|Hypergamy}}

===Communication of sexual desire===
Metts, et al.<ref name="metts">Metts, S., Sprecher, S., & Regan, P. C. (1998). Communication and sexual desire. In P. A. Andersen & L. K. Guerrero (Eds.) Handbook of communication and emotion. (pp. 354–377). San Diego: Academic Press.</ref> explain that [[Libido|sexual desire]] is linked to emotions and communicative expression. Communication is central in expressing sexual desire and "complicated emotional states", and is also the "mechanism for negotiating the relationship implications of [[sexual activity]] and emotional meanings". Gender differences appear to exist in communicating sexual desire, for example, masculine people are generally perceived to be more interested in sex than feminine people, and research suggests that masculine people are more likely than feminine people to express sexual interest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=R. |last2=Catanese |first2=K. |last3=Vohs |first3=K. |year=2001 |title=Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=242–273 |doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0503_5 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.5369 |s2cid=13336463}}</ref>

This may be greatly affected by masculine people being less inhibited by [[social norms]] for expressing their desire, being more aware of their sexual desire or succumbing to the expectations of their cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seal |first1=D. |last2=Ehrhardt |first2=A. |year=2003 |title=Masculinity and urban men: Perceived scripts for courtship, romantic, and sexual interactions with women |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=295–319 |doi=10.1080/136910501171698 |s2cid=144924015}}</ref> When feminine people employ tactics to show their sexual desire, they are typically more indirect in nature. On the other hand, it is known masculinity is associated with aggressive behavior in almost all mammals, and most likely explains at least part of the fact that masculine people are more likely to express their sexual interest. This is known as the [[Challenge hypothesis]].

Various studies show different communication strategies with a feminine person refusing a masculine person's sexual interest. Some research, like that of Murnen,<ref name="murnen">{{cite journal |last1=Murnen |first1=S. K. |last2=Perot |first2=A. |last3=Byrne |first3=D. |year=1989 |title=Coping with unwanted sexual activity: Normative responses, situational determinants, and individual differences |doi=10.1080/00224498909551493 |journal=Journal of Sex Research |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=85–106}}</ref> show that when feminine people offer refusals, the refusals are verbal and typically direct. When masculine people do not comply with this refusal, feminine people offer stronger and more direct refusals. However, research from Perper and Weis<ref name="perper">{{cite journal |last1=Perper |first1=T. |last2=Weis |first2=D. L. |year=1987 |title=Proceptive and rejective strategies of U.S. and Canadian college women |journal=[[Journal of Sex Research]] |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=455–480 |doi=10.1080/00224498709551385}}</ref> showed that rejection includes acts of avoidance, creating distractions, making excuses, departure, hinting, arguments to delay, etc. These differences in refusal communication techniques are just one example of the importance of communicative competence for both masculine and feminine gender cultures.

===In marriage===
[[File:Weekly hours dedicated to home production in US, by gender, OWID.svg|thumb|300px|Weekly hours dedicated to home production in US, by gender]]
[[File:Hours per week spent on child care, United States, OWID.svg|thumb|300px|Hours per week spent on child care, United States]]
The institution of marriage influences gender roles, inequality, and change.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=C. |year=2012 |title=Introduction: Marriage, gender relations and social change |journal=[[Journal of Development Studies]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/00220388.2011.629653 |s2cid=144978684}}</ref> In the United States, gender roles are communicated by the media, social interaction, and language. Through these platforms society has influenced individuals to fulfill from a young age the stereotypical gender roles in a heterosexual marriage. Roles traditionally distributed according to biological sex are increasingly negotiated by spouses on an equal footing.

In the U.S., marriage roles are generally decided based on gender. For approximately the past seven decades{{When|date=October 2024|reason=Seven decades after what time? '40s? '50s?}}, heterosexual marriage roles have been defined for men and women based on society's expectations and [[Media and gender|the influence of the media]].<ref name=":1">Gauntlett, D. (2008). ''Media, gender and identity: An introduction''. Routledge.</ref> Men and women are typically associated with certain social roles, dependent upon the personality traits associated with those roles.<ref name="Gerber, G. L. 1988">{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=G. L. |year=1988 |title=Leadership roles and the gender stereotype traits |doi=10.1007/BF00288051 |journal=Sex Roles |volume=18 |issue=11–12 |pages=649–668 |s2cid=143607687}}</ref> Traditionally, the role of the homemaker is associated with a woman and the role of a breadwinner is associated with a male.<ref name="Gerber, G. L. 1988"/>

In the U.S., single men are outnumbered by single women at a ratio of 100 single women to 86 single men,<ref>{{cite news |last=Pritchard |first=Justin |title=Men hold the edge on gender gap odds |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-6970963.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510202548/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-6970963.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 May 2013 |newspaper=[[Oakland Tribune]] |date=21 October 2003}}</ref> though never-married men over the age of 15 outnumber women by a 5:4 ratio (33.9% to 27.3%) according to the 2006 U.S. Census American Community Survey. The results are varied between age groups, with 118 single men per 100 single women in their 20s, versus 33 single men to 100 single women over 65.<ref>Facts for features: Valentine's Day U.S. Census Bureau Report 7 February 2006</ref>

The numbers also vary between countries. For example, China has many more young men than young women, and this disparity is expected to increase.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McCurry |first1=Justin |last2=Allison |first2=Rebecca |date=8 March 2004 |title=40m bachelors and no women. the birth of a new problem for China |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/09/china.justinmccurry |url-access=registration}}</ref> In regions with recent conflict, such as Chechnya, women greatly outnumber men.<ref>{{cite news |title=Polygamy proposal for Chechen men |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4610396.stm |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |date=13 January 2006}}</ref>

In a cross-cultural study by [[David Buss]], men and women were asked to rank the importance of certain traits in a long-term partner. Both men and women ranked "kindness" and "intelligence" as the two most important factors. Men valued beauty and youth more highly than women, while women valued financial and social status more highly than men.

Gendered roles in heterosexual marriages are learned through imitation. People learn what society views as appropriate gender behaviors from imitating the repetition of actions by one's role-model or parent of the same biological sex.<ref name=":2" /> Imitation in the physical world that impacts one's gendered roles often comes from role-modeling parents, peers, teachers, and other significant figures in one's life. In a marriage, oftentimes each person's gendered roles are determined by his or her parents. If the wife grew up imitating the actions of traditional parents, and the husband non-traditional parents, their views on marital roles would be different.<ref name=":2" /> One way people can acquire these stereotypical roles through a reward and punishment system. When a little girl imitates her mother by performing the traditional domestic duties she is often rewarded by being told she is doing a good job. Nontraditionally, if a little boy was performing the same tasks he would more likely be punished due to acting feminine.<ref name=":2" /> Because society holds these expected roles for men and women within a marriage, it creates a mold for children to follow.<ref>Lindsey, L. L. (2015). ''Gender roles: A sociological perspective''. Routledge.</ref>

====Changing gender roles in marriage====
Over the years, gender roles have continued to change and have a significant impact on the institution of marriage.<ref name=":0"/> Traditionally, men and women had completely opposing roles, men were seen as the provider for the family and women were seen as the caretakers of both the home and the family.<ref name=":0"/> However, in today's society the division of roles is starting to blur. More and more individuals are adapting non-traditional gender roles into their marriages in order to share responsibilities. This view on gender roles seeks out equality between sexes. In today's society, it is more likely that a husband and wife are both providers for their family. More and more women are entering the workforce while more men are contributing to household duties.<ref name=":0"/>

After around the year 1980, divorce rates in the United States stabilized.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greenstein |first1=Theodore N. |year=1995 |title=Gender Ideology, Marital Disruption, and the Employment of Married Women |journal=[[Journal of Marriage and Family]] |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=31–42 |doi=10.2307/353814 |jstor=353814}}</ref> Scholars in the area of sociology explain that this stabilization was due to several factors including, but not limited to, the shift in gender roles. The attitude concerning the shift in gender roles can be classified into two perspectives: traditional and egalitarian. Traditional attitudes uphold designated responsibilities for the sexes – wives raise the children and keep the home nice, and husbands are the breadwinners. Egalitarian attitudes uphold responsibilities being carried out equally by both sexes – wives and husbands are both breadwinners and they both take part in raising the children and keeping the home nice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lucier-Greer | first1 = M. | last2 = Adler-Baeder | first2 = F. | year = 2016 | title = Gender role attitude malleability in the context of divorce and remarriage: A longitudinal growth curve perspective | journal = Journal of Adult Development | volume = 23 | issue = 3| pages = 150–162 | doi = 10.1007/s10804-016-9231-z | s2cid = 146939829 }}</ref> Over the past 40 years, attitudes in marriages have become more egalitarian.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = Shannon N | last2 = Greenstein | first2 = Theodore N | year = 2004| title = Interactive Effects of Gender Ideology and Age at First Marriage on Women's Marital Disruption | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-issues_2004-07_25_5/page/658 | journal = Journal of Family Issues | volume = 25 | issue = 5| pages = 658–682 | doi = 10.1177/0192513x03257795 | s2cid = 6912666 }}</ref> Two studies carried out in the early 2000s have shown strong correlation between egalitarian attitudes and happiness and satisfaction in marriage, which scholars believe lead to stabilization in divorce rates. The results of a 2006 study performed by Gayle Kaufman, a professor of sociology, indicated that those who hold egalitarian attitudes report significantly higher levels of marital happiness than those with more traditional attitudes.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kaufman | first1 = G. | last2 = Taniguchi | first2 = H. | year = 2006 | title = Gender and marital happiness in later life | journal = Journal of Family Issues | volume = 27 | issue = 6| pages = 735–757 | doi = 10.1177/0192513x05285293 | s2cid = 146362115 }}</ref> Another study executed by Will Marshall in 2008 had results showing that relationships with better quality involve people with more egalitarian beliefs.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Perry | first1 = Samuel L | last2 = Whitehead | first2 = Andrew L | year = 2016| title = For Better or for Worse? Gender Ideology, Religious Commitment, and Relationship Quality | journal = Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | volume = 55 | issue = 4| pages = 737–755 | doi = 10.1111/jssr.12308 }}</ref> It has been assumed by Danielle J. Lindemann, a sociologist who studies gender, sexuality, the family, and culture, that the shift in gender roles and egalitarian attitudes have resulted in marriage stability due to tasks being carried out by both partners, such as working late-nights and picking up ill children from school.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindemann |first1=D. |year=2018 |title=Doing and undoing gender in commuter marriages |journal=Sex Roles |volume=79 |issue=1–2 |pages=36–49 |doi=10.1007/s11199-017-0852-x |s2cid=149096803}}</ref> Although the gap in gender roles still exists, roles have become less gendered and more equal in marriages compared to how they were traditionally.

===Sexual orientation===
{{Further|Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities|Societal attitudes towards homosexuality|Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures}}
{{LGBTQ sidebar}}
[[Sexual orientation]] is defined by the interplay between a person's emotional and physical attraction toward others.<ref>Issues in Society : Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity. (2014). Thirroul, AU: The Spinney Press.</ref> Generally, sexual orientation is broken into the three categories: heterosexual, homosexual and bisexual. By basic definition, the term heterosexual is typically used in reference to someone who is attracted to people of the opposite sex, the term homosexual is used to classify people who are attracted to those of the same sex, and the term bisexual is used to identify those who are attracted to both the same and opposite sexes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindley |first1=Lisa |last2=Walsemann |first2=Katrina |last3=Carter |first3=Jarvis |year=2012 |title=The Association of Sexual Orientation Measures With Young Adults' Health-Related Outcomes |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1177–1178 |doi=10.2105/ajph.2011.300262 |pmid=22021310 |pmc=3483939}}</ref> Sexual orientation can be variously defined based on sexual identity, sexual behavior and sexual attraction. People can fall anywhere on a spectrum from strictly heterosexual to strictly homosexual.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Epstein |first1=Robert |last2=McKinney |first2=Paul |last3=Fox |first3=Shannon |last4=Garcia |first4=Carlos |year=2013 |title=Support for a Fluid-Continuum Model or Sexual Orientation: A Large-Scale Internet Study |journal=[[Journal of Homosexuality]] |volume=59 |issue=10 |pages=1356–1358 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2012.724634 |pmid=23153024 |s2cid=37966088}}</ref>

Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is caused by a complex interplay of [[Genetics|genetic]], [[hormonal]], and [[Environment and sexual orientation|environmental influences]],<ref name="pediatrics2004"/><ref name="Lamanna">{{cite book |last1=Lamanna |first1=Mary Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fofaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society |last2=Riedmann |first2=Agnes |last3=Stewart |first3=Susan D. |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-305-17689-8 |page=82 |quote=The reason some individuals develop a gay sexual identity has not been definitively established – nor do we yet understand the development of heterosexuality. The American Psychological Association (APA) takes the position that a variety of factors impact a person's sexuality. The most recent literature from the APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice that can be changed at will, and that sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors. is shaped at an early age. and evidence suggests biological, including genetic or inborn hormonal factors, play a significant role in a person's sexuality (American Psychological Association 2010). |access-date=11 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="Stuart">{{cite book |first=Gail Wiscarz |last=Stuart |title=Principles and Practice of Psychiatric Nursing |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]] |isbn=978-0-323-29412-6 |year=2014 |page=502 |access-date=11 February 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivALBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA502 |quote=No conclusive evidence supports any one specific cause of homosexuality; however, most researchers agree that biological and social factors influence the development of sexual orientation.}}</ref> and do not view it as a choice.<ref name="pediatrics2004"/><ref name="Lamanna"/><ref name="Kersey-Matusiak">{{cite book |first=Gloria |last=Kersey-Matusiak |title=Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care |publisher=[[Springer Publishing Company]] |isbn=978-0-8261-9381-0|year=2012 |page=169 |access-date=10 February 2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8O_wGedAYoC&pg=PA169 |quote=Most health and mental health organizations do not view sexual orientation as a 'choice.'}}</ref> Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor [[Biology and sexual orientation|biologically based theories]].<ref name="pediatrics2004">{{cite journal |doi=10.1542/peds.113.6.1827 |last1=Frankowski |first1=B. L. |author2=American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence |title=Sexual orientation and adolescents |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=1827–32 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15173519 |doi-access=free}}</ref> There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.<ref name=Bailey16>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=J. Michael |last2=Vasey |first2=Paul |last3=Diamond |first3=Lisa |author4-link=Marc Breedlove |last4=Breedlove |first4=S. Marc |last5=Vilain |first5=Eric |last6=Epprecht |first6=Marc |title=Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |date=2016 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=45–101 |doi=10.1177/1529100616637616 |pmid=27113562 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301639075 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=LeVay>{{cite book |last=LeVay |first=Simon |date=2017 |title=Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmQFFfa03nkC |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-975296-6}}</ref><ref name=Balthazart>{{cite book |last=Balthazart |first=Jacques |date=2012 |title=The Biology of Homosexuality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fjGjlcVINkC |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-983882-0}}</ref> There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role with regard to sexual orientation.<ref name="rcp2007">{{cite web |title=Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality |url=http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx#history |publisher=The Royal College of Psychiatrists |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117212459/http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/workinpsychiatry/specialinterestgroups/gaylesbian/submissiontothecofe/psychiatryandlgbpeople.aspx |archive-date=17 January 2013 |access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref>

An active conflict over the cultural acceptability of [[non-heterosexual]]ity rages worldwide.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Maurianne |last1=Adams |first2=Lee Anne |last2=Bell |first3=Pat |last3=Griffin |date=2007 |title=Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=198–199 |isbn=978-1135928506 |quote=Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (See Overview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Claire M. |last1=Renzetti |first2=Jeffrey L. |last2=Edleson |date=2008 |title=Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |page=338 |isbn=978-1452265919 |quote=In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities.}}</ref><ref>2014 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia Retrieved 4 Mar 15 from {{cite web |url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=12 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Bruce-Jones |first1=Eddie |last2=Itaborahy |first2=Lucas Paoli |date=May 2011 |title=State-sponsored Homophobia |url=https://ilga.org/resources/state-sponsored-homophobia-report-2011-ilga/ |publisher=[[ILGA]] |access-date=15 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=West |first=D. J. |title=Homosexuality re-examined |location=Minneapolis |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |date=1977 |isbn=0-8166-0812-1}}</ref>{{pn|date=February 2025}} The belief or assumption that [[heterosexual]] relationships and acts are "normal" is described as [[heterosexism]] or in [[queer theory]], [[heteronormativity]]. Gender identity and sexual orientation are two separate aspects of individual identity, although they are often mistaken in the media.<ref name="GLAAD">Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. [http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender "GLAAD Media Reference Guide, 8th Edition. Transgender Glossary of Terms"], ''[[GLAAD]]'', USA, May 2010. Retrieved 20 November 2011.</ref>

Perhaps it is an attempt to reconcile this conflict that leads to a common assumption that one same-sex partner assumes a pseudo-male gender role and the other assumes a pseudo-female role. For a gay male relationship, this might lead to the assumption that the "wife" handled domestic chores, was the receptive sexual partner, adopted effeminate mannerisms, and perhaps even dressed in women's clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mager |first1=Don |title=Gay Theories of Gender Role Deviance |journal=SubStance |date=1985 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=32–48 |doi=10.2307/3684953 |jstor=3684953}}</ref> This assumption is flawed because homosexual couples tend to have more equal roles, and the effeminate behavior of some gay men is usually not adopted consciously, and is often more subtle.<ref name=Dwyer>{{cite book |last=Dwyer |first=D. |title=Interpersonal Relationships |year=2000 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-01971-9 |page=104 |edition=2nd}}</ref>

Cohabitating same-sex partners are typically egalitarian when they assign domestic chores.<ref name=":7">{{cite book|last=Cherlin|first=Andrew|title=Public and Private Families, an introduction|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.|page=234}}</ref> Sometimes these couples assign traditional female responsibilities to one partner and traditional male responsibilities to the other. Same-sex [[domestic partners]] challenge traditional gender roles in their division of household responsibilities, and gender roles within homosexual relationships are flexible.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crook|first=Robert|title=Our Sexuality|year=2011|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|page=271}}</ref> For instance, cleaning and cooking, traditionally regarded by many as both female responsibilities, might be assigned to different people. Carrington observed the daily home lives of 52 gay and lesbian couples and found that the length of the work week and level of earning power substantially affected the assignment of housework, regardless of gender or sexuality.<ref>Carrington, C. (1999) No place like home: Relationships and family life among lesbians and gay men. The University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name=":7"/>

In many cultures, gender roles, especially for men, simultaneously act as an indicator for heterosexuality, and as a boundary of acceptable behavior for straight people. Therefore, lesbians, gay men and bisexual people may be viewed as exempt from some or all components of gender roles or as having different "rules" they are expected to follow by society.

These modified "rules" for lesbian, gay and bisexual people may also be oppressive. Morgan examines the plight of homosexuals seeking [[right of asylum|asylum]] from homophobic persecution who have been turned away by US customs for "not being gay enough"; not conforming sufficiently to standard (Western) conceptions of the gender roles occupied by gays and lesbians.<ref>Morgan, D. (2006) Not gay enough for the government: Racial and sexual stereotypes in sexual orientation asylum cases. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/lsex15&div=9&g_sent=1&collection=journals#141</ref>

Conversely, heterosexual men and women who are not perceived as being sufficiently masculine or feminine, respectively, may be assumed to be, or suspected to be, homosexual, and persecuted for their perceived homosexuality.