Editing Forensic entomology (section)

==Invertebrate types==
{{More citations needed|section|date=April 2008}}

===Scorpionflies===

Scorpionflies (order [[Mecoptera]]) were the first insects to arrive at a donated human cadaver observed (by the entomologist Natalie Lindgren) at the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science Facility near [[Huntsville, Texas]], and remained on the corpse for one and a half days, outnumbering flies during that period. A great presence of scorpionflies may indicate a shorter postmortem interval.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Rutsch P |title=Finding Crime Clues in What Insects Had For Dinner |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/01/22/379091257/finding-crime-clues-in-what-insects-had-for-dinner |publisher=NPR |access-date=22 June 2015 |date=22 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science Facility |url=http://www.shsu.edu/~stafs/ |publisher=STAFS}}</ref>

===Flies===

[[Flies]] from the order [[Diptera]] are often found at a crime scene, because they are attracted to the chemicals released by decomposing bodies, known as volatile organic compounds (VOCs).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martin C, Minchilli D, Francis F, Verheggen F | title = Behavioral and Electrophysiological Responses of the Fringed Larder Beetle ''Dermestes frischii'' to the Smell of a Cadaver at Different Decomposition Stages | journal = Insects | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | page = 238 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32290328 | pmc = 7240428 | doi = 10.3390/insects11040238 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A dead body is a perfect environment for oviposition, the laying of eggs. The developing maggots will have a ready food source. Different types of flies can be found on dead bodies, the most significant of which are:
[[File:Decomposition01.jpg|thumb|Blowflies on a corpse]]

* Blow flies – Family [[Calliphoridae]]- Flies in this family are often metallic in appearance and between 10 and 14&nbsp;mm in length.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Collatz KG | chapter = Insect models for the study of aging. | veditors = Conn PM | title = Handbook of Models for Human Aging | date = January 2006 | pages = 241–252 | publisher = Academic Press | doi = 10.1016/B978-012369391-4/50022-9 | isbn = 978-0-12-369391-4 }}</ref> In addition to the name blow-fly, some members of this family are known as [[Calliphora latifrons|blue bottle fly]], [[cluster fly|cluster flies]], [[Lucilia (fly)|greenbottle]]s, or [[Phormia regina|black blowfly]]. A characteristic of the blow-fly is its 3-segmented [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]]. Hatching from an egg to the first larval stage takes from eight hours to one day. [[Larva]]e have three stages of development (called [[instars]]); each stage is separated by a molting event. Molting can be defined as the process of new cuticle production while subsequently shedding the old cuticle.<ref>{{Citation| vauthors = Riddiford LM |title=Molting|date=2009 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Insects|pages=649–654|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00179-x|isbn=978-0-12-374144-8 }}</ref> Larvae's ideal habitat in regard to pupation are locations providing access to loose, damp soil and litter. The latter consists of temperate and rather tropical areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hairy Maggot Blow Flies|url=https://www.kznhealth.gov.za/environ/vector/blowflies.htm|access-date=2022-02-16|website=www.kznhealth.gov.za}}</ref> Worldwide, there are 1100 known species of blowflies, with 228 species in the [[Neotropics]], and a large number of species in [[Africa]] and Southern [[Europe]]. The most common area to find Calliphoridae species are in the countries of [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Central America]], and in the southern United States. The forensic importance of this fly is that it is the first [[insect]] to come in contact with [[carrion]] because they have the ability to smell death from up to {{convert|10|mi|km|spell=in}} away.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/sep/23/flies-murder-natural-history-museum |title=Lord of the flies: the insect detectives |vauthors = Henley J |date=23 September 2010 |website=The Guardian |publisher= Guardian News and Media Ltd |access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref> Some prominent species of Calliphoridae are ''[[Calliphora vomitoria]]'' and ''[[Calliphora vicina]].''

[[File:Sarcophaga nodosa.jpg|thumb|220px|Flesh fly on decomposing flesh]]
*[[Flesh flies]] – Family [[Sarcophagidae]]- Most flesh flies breed in carrion, dung, garbage, or decaying material, but a few species lay their eggs in the open wounds of mammals; hence their common name. Characteristics of the flesh-fly is its 3-segmented [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]]. Most [[holarctic]] Sarcophagidae vary in size from 4 to 18&nbsp;mm in length (Tropical species can be larger) with black and gray longitudinal stripes on the [[thorax]] and checkering on the [[abdomen]]. Flesh-flies, being viviparous, frequently give birth to live young on [[corpses]] of human and other animals, at any stage of decomposition, from newly dead through to bloated or decaying (though the latter is more common). ''[[Sarcophaga barbata]]'' are specifically useful since they deposit maggots directly onto the decomposing body, their larger, visible size, and difference in activity during different stages. Their main limitation, however, is due to lack of information surrounding their geographic distribution and taxonomic features.
[[File:Postmortem interval changes (stages of death).png|thumb|400px|Timeline of postmortem changes ([[stages of death]]), including house fly eggs, larvae and pupae]]
*[[Housefly|House fly]] – Family [[Muscidae]]- is the most common of all [[flies]] found in homes, and indeed one of the most widely distributed insects; it is often considered a [[Pest (organism)|pest]] that can carry serious diseases. The adults are 6–9&nbsp;mm long. Their [[thorax]] is gray, with four longitudinal dark lines on the back. The underside of their abdomen is yellow, and their whole body is covered with hair. Each female fly can lay up to 500 eggs in several batches of about 75 to 150 [[Egg (biology)|eggs]]. Genus ''[[Hydrotaea]]'' are of particular forensic importance.
*Cheese flies – Family [[Piophilidae]] - Most are scavengers in animal products and fungi. The best-known member of the family is ''[[Piophila casei]]''. It is a small fly, about four mm (1/6&nbsp;inch) long, found worldwide. This fly's larva infests cured meats, smoked fish, cheeses, and decaying animals and is sometimes called the cheese skipper for its leaping ability. Forensic entomology uses the presence of Piophila casei larvae to help estimate the date of death for human remains. They do not take up residence in a corpse until three to six months after death. The adult fly's body is black, blue-black, or bronze, with some yellow on the head, antennae, and legs. The wings are faintly [[iridescent]] and lie flat upon the fly's [[abdomen]] when at rest. At four mm (1/6&nbsp;inch) long, the fly is one-third to one-half as long as the common [[housefly]].
*Coffin flies – [[Phoridae]] – a/k/a Humpbacked flies - Larvae feed on decaying bodies. Some species can burrow to a depth of 50&nbsp;cm over 4 days. Important in buried bodies.
*Lesser corpse flies – [[Sphaeroceridae]].
*Lesser house flies – [[Fanniidae]].
*Black scavenger flies – [[Sepsidae]].
*Sun flies - [[Heleomyzidae]].
*[[Black soldier fly]] - [[Stratiomyidae]] - have potential for use in forensic entomology. The larvae are common [[scavengers]] in compost heaps, are found in association with carrion, can be destructive pests in honey bee hives, and are used in [[manure]] management (for both [[house fly]] control and reduction in manure volume). The larvae range in size from 1/8 to 3/4 of an inch (3 to 19 millimeters). The adult fly is a [[mimic]], very close in size, color, and appearance to the [[organ pipe mud dauber]] wasp and its relatives.
*Non-biting midges - [[Chironomidae]] - these flies have a complex life cycle. While adults are terrestrial and phytophagous, larvae are aquatic and detritivorous. Immature instars have been used as forensic markers in several cases where submerged corpses were found.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = González Medina A, Soriano Hernando Ó, Jiménez Ríos G | title = The Use of the Developmental Rate of the Aquatic Midge Chironomus riparius (Diptera, Chironomidae) in the Assessment of the Postsubmersion Interval | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 822–826 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25613586 | doi = 10.1111/1556-4029.12707 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 196612239 | hdl = 10261/123473 }}</ref>

===Beetles===

[[Beetle]]s (Order [[Coleoptera]]) are generally found in later stages of decomposition.<ref>Midgley JM, Richards CS, Villet MH, 2010. The utility of Coleoptera in forensic investigations. In: Amendt J, Campobasso CP, Goff ML, Grassberger M, eds. Current concepts in forensic entomology. Heidelberg: Springer, 57-68.</ref> They play a role in breaking down the remaining tissue and are important in the final stages of decomposition. In drier conditions, the beetles can be replaced by moth flies ([[Psychodidae]]). Their life cycle normally consists of four stages : eggs, larval, pupal, and adult. Each stage has unique eating behavior that changes as the organism breaks down. In forensic investigations, the existence and developmental phases of insects can yield important data for understanding environmental circumstances, body movement, and postmortem interval (PMI) estimation. In forensic entomology, insects play a crucial function as indicators, helping to identify vital components of a death investigation due to their distinct ecological responsibilities and varied geographic distribution. Different types of beetles can be found on dead bodies the most significant include:
[[File:Rove Beetle. Staphylinidae - Flickr - gailhampshire (1).jpg|thumb|Rove Beetle]]

* Rove beetles – family [[Staphylinidae]] – are elongate beetles with small [[elytra]] (wing covers) and large jaws. Rove beetles have a four-stage life cycle; egg, larvae, pupa and adult.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Sutherland CA |date= October 2006 |title=Rove Beetles|url=https://aces.nmsu.edu/ces/plantclinic/documents/t-07-rovebeetles.pdf | work = Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture and Home Economics | publisher = New Mexico State University}}</ref> ''[[Creophilus]]'' species are common predators of carrion, and since they are large, are a very visible component of the fauna of corpses. Some adult Staphylinidae are early visitors to a corpse, feeding on larvae of all species of fly, including the later predatory fly larvae. They lay their eggs in the corpse, and the emerging larvae are also predators. Some species have a long development time in the egg, and are common only during the later stages of decomposition. Staphylinids can also tear open the [[pupa]]l cases of flies, to sustain themselves at a corpse for long periods.
*Hister beetles – family [[Histeridae]]. Adult histerids are usually shiny beetles (black or metallic-green) which have an introverted head. The carrion-feeding species only become active at night when they enter the maggot-infested part of the corpse to capture and devour their maggot prey. During daylight they hide under the corpse unless it is sufficiently decayed to enable them to hide inside it. They have fast larval development with only two larval stages. Among the first beetles to arrive at a corpse are Histeridae of the genus ''[[Saprinus]]''. ''Saprinus'' adults feed on both the larvae and pupae of [[blowflies]], although some have a preference for fresh pupae. The adults lay their eggs in the corpse, inhabiting it in the later stages of decay.
*Carrion beetles – family [[Silphidae]]- Adult Silphidae have an average size of about 12&nbsp;mm. They are also referred to as burying beetles because they dig and bury small carcasses underground.<ref name="Scott">{{cite journal | vauthors = Scott MP | title = The ecology and behavior of burying beetles | journal = Annual Review of Entomology | volume = 43 | pages = 595–618 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 15012399 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.595 }}</ref> Both parents tend to their young and exhibit communal breeding. The male carrion beetle's job in care is to provide protection for the breed and carcass from competitors. ''[[Necrodes littoralis]]'' is a type of carrion beetle in the Silphidae family that prefers to inhabit bodies that are outdoors and in the later stages of decomposition. Modeling the activity and behaviors of carrion beetles like ''N. littoralis'' and other carrion beetles that inhbait bodies earlier in death is a helpful tool to map time of death.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gruszka J, Matuszewski S | title = Temperature models of development for Necrodes littoralis L. (Coleoptera: Silphidae), a carrion beetle of forensic importance in the Palearctic region | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 9689 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 35690667 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-022-13901-y | bibcode = 2022NatSR..12.9689G | pmc = 9188545 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gruszka J, Matuszewski S | title = Insect rearing protocols in forensic entomology: Benefits from collective rearing of larvae in a carrion beetle Necrodes littoralis L. (Silphidae) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 16 | issue = 12 | pages = e0260680 | date = 2021-12-01 | pmid = 34852020 | pmc = 8635339 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0260680 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2021PLoSO..1660680G }}</ref>
*Ham beetles – family [[Cleridae]].
*Carcass beetles – family [[Trogidae]].
*Skin/hide beetles – family [[Dermestidae]]. Hide beetles are important in the final stages of decomposition of a carcass. The adults and larvae feed on the dried skin, tendons and bone left by fly larvae. Hide beetles are the only beetle with the enzymes necessary for breaking down [[keratin]], a protein component of hair.
*Scarab beetles – family [[Scarabaeidae]]- Scarab beetles may be any one of around 30,000 beetle species worldwide that are compact, heavy-bodied and oval in shape. The flattened plates, which each antenna terminates, are fitted together to form a club. The outer edges of the front legs may also be toothed or scalloped. Scarab beetles range from {{convert|0.2|to|4.8|in|mm|abbr=on}} in length. These species are known for being one of the heaviest insect species.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Scarab beetle | date = 2007 | encyclopedia = Britannica Concise Encyclopedia | url = https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-377894.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080614005855/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-377894.html | archive-date = 14 June 2008 }}</ref>
*Sap beetles – family [[Nitidulidae]].

===Mites===

Many [[mite]]s (class [[Acari]], not insects) feed on corpses with ''Macrocheles'' mites common in the early stages of decomposition, while Tyroglyphidae and Oribatidae mites such as Rostrozetes feed on dry skin in the later stages of decomposition.

''[[Nicrophorus]]'' beetles often carry on their bodies the mite ''[[Poecilochirus]]'' which feed on fly eggs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = González Medina A, González Herrera L, Perotti MA, Jiménez Ríos G | title = Occurrence of Poecilochirus austroasiaticus (Acari: Parasitidae) in forensic autopsies and its application on postmortem interval estimation | journal = Experimental & Applied Acarology | volume = 59 | issue = 3 | pages = 297–305 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 22914911 | doi = 10.1007/s10493-012-9606-1 | s2cid = 16228053 }}</ref> If they arrive at the corpse before any fly eggs hatch into maggots, the first eggs are eaten and maggot development is delayed. This may lead to incorrect PMI estimates. ''Nicrophorus'' beetles find the [[ammonia]] excretions of blowfly maggots toxic, and the ''Poecilochirus'' mites, by keeping the maggot population low, allow ''Nicrophorus'' to occupy the corpse.

===Moths===

[[Moth]]s (order [[Lepidoptera]]) specifically [[clothes-moth]]s – Family [[Tineidae]] – are closely related to [[butterfly|butterflies]]. Most species of moth are [[nocturnal]], but there are [[crepuscular]] and [[Diurnality|diurnal]] species. During their larval stages, clothes moths tend to feed on mammalian hair.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corpse fauna|url=https://australian.museum/learn/science/decomposition-corpse-fauna/|access-date=2022-02-26|website=The Australian Museum|language=en}}</ref> They are amongst the final animals contributing to the decomposition of a corpse. This said, adult moths lay their legs on a carcass ''subsequently'' to fly larvae having had their presence on it.

===Wasps, ants, and bees===

Wasps, ants, and bees (order [[Hymenoptera]]) are not necessarily necrophagous. While some feed on the body, some are also predatory, and eat the insects feeding on the body. Thus meaning they are parasitoids ([[Parasitoid wasp]]). These Hymenoptera lay their eggs within the eggs or pupae of other insects; essentially causing the death of host insects.<ref name="Haglund_2002"/> Wasps can also be of association to the family [[Pteromalidae]]. The latter can lay single or multiple eggs. They oviposit in pupae of muscoid flies (blow flies). Subsequently, to the wasp eggs hatching, larvae will feed on the fly developing within the puparium; leading to its death.<ref name="Haglund_2002"/> [[Bee]]s and [[wasp]]s have been seen feeding on the body during the early stages.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} This may cause problems for murder cases in which larval flies are used to estimate the post mortem interval since eggs and larvae on the body may have been consumed prior to the arrival on scene of investigators.