Editing Dwarf (folklore) (section)

==Attributes and themes==
===Diversity and vagueness===
Rather than existing a "true" single nature of a dwarf, they vary in their characteristics, not only across regions and time but also between one another in the same cultural context. Some are capable of changing their form entirely. The scholar [[Ármann Jakobsson]] notes that accounts of dwarfs in the [[Eddas]] and the section of [[Ynglinga saga]] regarding [[Sveigðir]] lack prominence in their narratives and cohesive identity. Based on this, he puts forward the idea that dwarfs in these sources are set apart from other beings by their difficulty to be defined and generalised, ultimately stemming from their intrinsic nature to be hidden and as the "Other" that stands in contrast with humans.{{sfn|Jakobsson|2005|pp=69-70}}

===Appearance===
====Form and colour====
[[File:HeyshamHogbackFaces_1.jpg|thumbnail|350px|right|Face of the [[Heysham hogback|Heysham hogback stone]] depicting four figures with upraised arms, which have been interpreted as the dwarfs [[Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri]] holding up the sky{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=82-88}}]]
Based on the etymology of dwarf, it has been proposed that the oldest conception of a dwarf was as exclusively a formless spirit, potentially as in the case of disease-causing dwarfs; however, this view is not seen in the oldest manuscript accounts.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|pp=143-144,147}} In the quotation of [[Völuspá]] in the Prose Edda, the dwarfs emerge as beings with human form ({{lang|non|mannlíkun}}), while in the [[Codex Regius]] manuscript the first two dwarfs created either dwarfs or people with human forms.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=70-72}} The prose of the [[Ynglinga saga]] describes a dwarf sitting, standing, and speaking, leading to the proposal that at the time of writing, dwarfs were believed to, at least sometimes, have a human-like form. It nonetheless appears to have been recognised as a dwarf; however, that may have been due to its behaviour instead of its physical appearance.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=63-64}} In [[skaldic]] and [[Eddic]] sources, it has been noted that their roles are what define them rather than their physical appearance, which has no significant relevance.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|p=64}}

Many dwarf names in Eddic sources relate to light and brightness, such as {{lang|non|Dellingr}} ('the gleaming one') and {{lang|non|Glóinn}} ('glowing'). Stories do not explain these names, but it has been theorised that they refer to the fires in the forges the dwarfs work, or to {{lang|is|haugaeldar}} ('grave mound fires') that are found in later Icelandic folklore. In contrast, Snorri describes [[dökkálfar]] (which are typically identified as dwarfs) as "blacker than pitch".{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=75-76}} [[Alvíss]] is described by [[Thor]] in [[Alvíssmál]] as being as unsuitable for wedding his daughter [[Þrúðr]] as he was "pale about the nostrils" and resembled a [[Jötunn|þurs]].{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=88-89}}

In [[Middle High German]] heroic poetry, most dwarfs have long beards, but some may appear childish.{{sfn|Lütjens|1911|pp=70-72}}

====Size====
In the early [[Old Norse]] sources, dwarfs are typically described vaguely, with no reference to them being particularly small; in the legendary sagas and later folklore, however, they are often described as short.{{sfn|Simek|2008|pp=67-68}}

[[Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri]] are four dwarfs, potentially depicted as four anthropomorphic figures on the [[Hogback (sculpture)|hogback stone]] in Heysham in [[Lancashire]], that according to the [[Prose Edda]], each holds up a corner of the sky, that was fashioned from the skull of [[Ymir]]. It has been suggested that this would imply that dwarfs could be very tall; however, it has been noted that the sky could have been conceived of as being close to the earth at the horizon.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=65-66}} [[Regin]], a figure identified as either a dwarf or resembling a dwarf, is a similar size to the hero [[Sigurd]] on both the [[Ramsund carving]] and carvings from the [[Hylestad Stave Church]].{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=82-88}} Dwarf names in Eddic sources include {{lang|non|Fullangr}} ('tall enough') and {{lang|non|Hár}} ('high'); however, the terms are ambiguous and do not necessarily mean the dwarfs were conceived of as tall relative to a human.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|p=73}} Some names suggest a small size, such as Nori and Nabbi, which have been translated as "tiny" and "little nub", respectively; however, it has been argued that this was not necessarily the general rule.{{sfn|Liberman|2002|p=177}}

Not all late sagas involving dwarfs describe their size, but all that do describe them as short.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2014|p=184}} In some German stories, the dwarf takes on the attributes of a knight but is most clearly separated from normal humans by his small size, in some cases only reaching up to the knees.{{sfn|Lütjens|1911|pp=69-70,74}} Despite their small size, dwarfs in these contexts typically have superhuman strength, either by nature or through magical means.{{sfn|Lütjens|1911|pp=79-80}} [[Anatoly Liberman]] suggests that dwarfs may have been initially thought of as lesser supernatural beings, which became literal smallness after Christianisation.{{sfn|Liberman|2008|p=57}}

====Shape changing====
Diversity in appearance is not only seen between dwarfs throughout time and region but also with individual dwarfs, who can be capable of changing their shape and size, such as in [[Reginsmál]], in which the dwarf [[Andvari]] lived as a pike in the water due to curse from a [[Norns|Norn]], however, could also take on a human-like shape.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|pp=80-81,91}} In later [[German folklore]], the Zwergkönig ('Dwarf King') is a tiny being but is capable of becoming enormously tall at will.{{sfn|Motz|1982|p=74}}

===Gender and family groups===
[[File:RibeSkullFragment.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Ribe skull fragment]], dating to the 8th century CE, bearing a protective charm against either one or two dwarfs]]
In Eddic and skaldic sources, dwarfs are almost exclusively male; for example, in the [[Dvergatal]], every dwarf named is male. Some scholars have proposed that female dwarfs were not believed to exist; however, they are likely attested in charms dating to the early medieval period and are explicitly described in later saga material. Dwarfs are also widely referenced in these sources as having family relations with others, such as brothers and sons. Pairs or groups of brothers are seen relatively abundantly in Eddic contexts, as with the [[sons of Ívaldi]], and [[Fjalarr and Galarr]].{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|pp=148,153-154}}

The inscription on the 8th century [[Ribe skull fragment]] has been interpreted by some scholars as explicitly referring to a {{lang|non|dvergynja}} ('female-dwarf') that may have been believed to have been causing harm to the user of the fragment. This interpretation is paralleled in Wið Dweorh XCIIIb ([[Against a Dwarf]] XCIIIb), in which a harmful dwarf's sister is called to prevent him from causing an afflicted person's illness.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|p=146}}{{sfn|Nordström|2021|pp=21-22}}

In [[Fáfnismál]], the [[Germanic dragon|worm]] [[Fáfnir]] refers to some [[Norns]] as "Dvalinn's daughters" ({{langx|non|Dvalins dǿtr}}),{{sfn|Bellows|2004|loc=Fáfnismál, stanza 13}} while in the Prose Edda, they are described as "of the dwarfs' kin" ({{langx|non|dverga ættar}}).{{refn|group=note|It is unclear whether "Dvalinn's daughters" means that they are literally the daughters of the dwarf [[Dvalinn]], or that the term refers more generally to descendants of dwarfs.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|p=158}}}}{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|p=158}} As Norns are also female, this could mean that dwarfs were conceived of by the author of the poem as able to be female, it is not clear whether either their mother (or mothers) are dwarfs, or if they themselves are considered dwarfs just because they are descended from dwarfs.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|p=159}}

It has been noted that it may not be that female dwarfs did not exist in the folklore of this period, only that no explicit references to them survive in preserved narratives. It has been proposed this may be because narratives typically centre on the gods rather than dwarfs and that female dwarfs were not conceived of as of great relevance to the gods, given their primary interest in obtaining goods from dwarfs, which does not depend on their gender. Humans, being of lower power and status, cannot control dwarfs as easily and require alternative strategies to obtain treasures from them, potentially explaining why female dwarfs are more prominent in saga literature.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|p=159}}

Female dwarfs feature in the late [[Gibbons saga]], [[Bósa saga]] and [[Þjalar-Jóns saga]], where they are referred to by the term "{{lang|non|dyrgja}}". In these cases, female dwarfs are only mentioned alongside males and are not independently important to the plot. Beyond Svama, the named {{lang|non|dyrgja}} in Þjalar-Jóns saga, the only other explicitly named dwarf woman in saga literature is the daughter of Sindri in [[Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]], Herríðr.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2014|pp=167-170}} In saga material, dwarf children are also seen. In Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar and [[Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana]], central characters help these children and are rewarded in return by the father with treasures. Conversely, in [[Sigurðar saga þǫgla]], the human Hálfdan is cursed after he throws a rock at a dwarf child, breaking its jaw, and is subsequently visited by the child's father in a dream who curses him. Hálfdan's brother later gives the child a gold ring to atone for the harm and is rewarded by the father, once more in a dream. Together, this suggests that dwarfs could be conceived of as loving and protective of their children by the saga authors. In Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, this family love is extended to the human Hálfdan who develops a [[fostering]] relation with the dwarf Litr, likely with Hálfdan as the foster son.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2014|pp=167-183}}
 
In German heroic legend, male dwarfs are often portrayed as lusting after human women. In contrast, female dwarfs seek to possess the male hero in the legends.{{sfn|Lütjens|1911|p=103}}

===Craftsmanship and treasure===
In [[Edda|Eddic sources]] dwarfs are attributed with creating magical treasures for the gods such as [[Mjölnir]], [[Sif]]'s hair, [[Draupnir]],  [[Gullinbursti]], [[Skíðblaðnir]], [[Gleipnir]] and [[Gungnir]], while in [[Sörla þáttr]] they craft [[Brísingamen]] for Freyja.{{sfn|Simek|2008|pp=45,65,113,122,124,219,283,289}} They further created the [[Mead of Poetry]] from the blood of [[Kvasir]], which grants skill in poetry to those who drink from it. According to [[Skáldskaparmál]], due to the role of dwarfs in crafting the drink, poetry can be referred to by kennings such as "the Billow of the Dwarf-Crag", "Thought's Drink of the Rock-Folk", "the Drink of Dvalinn", "the Dwarves' ship" and the "Ale of the Dwarves".{{sfn|Simek|2008|pp=68,124}}{{sfn|Brodeur|1916|loc=Chapter 10}} [[John Lindow]] noted that stanza 10 of the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá'' can be read as describing the creation of human forms from the earth and follows a catalogue of dwarf names; he suggests that the poem may present [[Ask and Embla]] as having been created by dwarfs, with the three gods then giving them life.{{sfn|Lindow|2001|pp=62-63}}

In Eddic and some saga sources, rather than being exchanged, items of value move from dwarfs to others, often through extortion. This has been suggested to be a critical differentiator between dwarfs and elves in [[pre-Christian Germanic religion]], who maintain reciprocal and positive relationships with gods and humans; [[Kormaks saga]] describes how food was to be shared with elves to heal sickness and [[Austrfararvísur]] records an [[álfablót]] being held around the early 11th century in [[Sweden]]. Dwarfs, on the other hand, according to these sources, are asocial, and there are no records of them receiving [[blóts]] or other gifts in this period.{{sfn|Barreiro|2014|pp=39-40}}

Dwarfs maintain their roles as reluctant donors of their possessions in some later [[Old Norse]] legends such as [[Volsunga saga]] and [[Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks]], where they are forced to give up [[Andvaranaut]] and [[Tyrfing]] respectively. Some [[fornaldarsögur|legendary]] and [[riddarasögur|romance sagas]] diverge from this, with dwarfs acting friendlily and helpfully; however, this is attributed to their lateness and likely do not represent perceptions that predate Christianisation.{{sfn|Barreiro|2014|p=40}} Typically, in these later sagas, fighting dwarfs is considered dishonourable, in contrast to other beings such as [[Germanic dragon|dragons]]. Receiving help from a dwarf, however, such as being healed or given a treasure, was not seen as problematic; it has been proposed that the worldview of the saga writers was that a hero is not defined by achieving deeds alone but by being able to both give and accept help.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2014|pp=184-185}}

In German legends, they also possess other magical objects and often appear as master smiths.{{sfn|Lütjens|1911|pp=80-86}}

===Association with mountains and stones===
[[File:Dwarfie Stane, Island of Hoy, Orkney.jpg|thumb|The Dwarfie Stane, on the island of [[Hoy, Orkney|Hoy]], in [[Orkney]]]]
The [[Codex Regius]] version of Völuspá records that dwarfs were produced out of the earth, while in the Prose Edda, they form like [[maggots]] in the flesh of [[Ymir]], which became the earth.{{sfn|Mikučionis|2020|pp=147-148,151}} Beyond this, in early [[Old Norse]] sources, there is ambiguity between whether dwarfs live within stones or whether they are themselves stones. In [[Völuspá]] they are referred to as 'masters of the rocks' ({{langx|non|veggbergs vísir}}) and skaldic kennings for 'stone' include {{lang|non|'dvergrann'}} ('house of the dwarf') and {{lang|non|'Durnis niðja salr'}} ('the hall of [[Dúrnir|Durnir]]'s kinsman'). In [[Ynglingatal]] stanza 2 and the accompanying prose in the [[Ynglinga saga]], a dwarf lures [[King Sveigðir]] into an open stone which closes behind them, whereupon he is never seen again. Ynglingasaga also describes this dwarf as being afraid of the sun ({{langx|non|dagskjarr}}), akin to in [[Alvíssmál]], where the poem's [[Alvíss|eponymous dwarf]] is turned to stone by sunlight.{{sfn|Jakobsson|2005|pp=64-65}}{{sfn|Mikučionis|2017|p=63}}{{sfn|Motz|1977|p=48}}

In German legends, they typically live inside of hollow mountains; in some cases, they may live above the ground,{{sfn|Lütjens|1911|pp=91-92}} while in saga literature, such as Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar they commonly live in individual stones, which could also serve as workshops, such as in the forging of [[Brísingamen]] in [[Sörla þáttr]].{{sfn|Mikučionis|2014|pp=161-162}}{{sfn|Motz|1977|p=48}} The presentation of dwarfs living within stones continued into modern folklore surrounding specific landscape features such as the [[Dwarfie Stane]], a chambered tomb located on the island of [[Hoy, Orkney|Hoy]], and the {{lang|is|Dvergasteinn}} in [[Seyðisfjörður]].{{sfn|Muir|2014|p=37}}{{sfn|Egeler|2016|pp=9-16}}

It has been proposed by [[Lotte Motz]] that the inhabitation of mountains, stones, and mounds by dwarfs may be derived from their earlier association with the dead who were frequently buried in [[Burial mound|mounds]] and around [[megaliths]].{{sfn|Motz|1977|p=56}}

===Causing disease===
[[File:Lead middle Saxon lead plaque with runic inscription (FindID 751600) (cropped).jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|[[Near Fakenham plaque|Lead plaque found near Fakenham]], in [[Norfolk]], believed to be a charm against a dwarf]]
The term '{{lang|ang|dweorg}}' can be used in [[Old English]] texts to describe an illness; it is commonly used in medical texts derived from Greek or Latin sources, where it is used to gloss symptoms such as fever.{{sfn|Hines|2019|p=37}} The "Dictionary of Old English" divides the definition of {{langx|ang|dweorg}} into either "a dwarf or pygmy" or "a fever"; however, it has been argued that the distinction between the two meanings may not have been prevalent among [[Germanic peoples]] in the [[Early Middle Ages]], due to the close association between the beings and sickness in medicinal charms.{{sfn|Hall|2009|pp=206-207}}

The 8th century [[Ribe skull fragment]], found in [[Jutland]], bears an inscription that calls for help from three beings, including [[Odin]], against either one or two harmful dwarfs.{{sfn|Hall|2009|p=206}}{{sfn|Nordström|2021|pp=1,22}} The item's function has been compared to the [[Sigtuna amulet I]] and [[Canterbury charm]] that seek to drive away a "lord of [[Jötunn|þursar]]" that is causing an infection, the latter explicitly with the help of Thor.{{sfn|Hall|2009|pp=201,204}} A similar inscription dating between the 8th and 11th century is found on a [[Near Fakenham plaque|lead plaque discovered near Fakenham]] in [[Norfolk]], which reads "dead is dwarf" ({{langx|ang|dead is dwerg}}), and has been interpreted as another example of a written charm aiming to rid the ill person of the disease, identified as a dwarf.{{sfn|Hines|2019|pp=36-37}} The [[Lacnunga]] contains the [[Anglo-Saxon metrical charms|Anglo-Saxon charm]] {{lang|ang|Wið Dweorh}} XCIIIb (''[[Against a Dwarf]] XCIIIb'') that refers to a sickness as a {{lang|ang|dweorg}} that is riding the afflicted person like a horse, similar to the harmful ''[[Mare (folklore)|mare]]'' in the later [[folklore of the Germanic-speaking peoples]].{{sfn|Hall|2009|p=207}} Despite the Christian elements in the {{lang|ang|Wið Dweorh}} charms, such as the saints called upon for help, their foundations likely lie in a shared North-Sea Germanic tradition that includes inscribed runic charms such as those found in Ribe and Norfolk.{{sfn|Nordström|2021|p=21}}

The conception of diseases as being caused by projectiles from supernatural beings is widespread in Germanic folklore through time, such as in the phenomenon of [[elfshot]], in [[Wið færstice]], where they are thrown by [[elves]], [[Ēse]] and witches, and in the Canterbury charm in which an infection is caused by the 'wound-spear' ({{langx|non|sár-þvara}}) used by the "lord of þursar".{{sfn|elf-shot}}{{sfn|Hall|2009|p=214}} In the case of dwarfs, this association has continued in places into the modern period, such as in the [[Norweigian language|Norwegian]] words {{lang|no|dvergskot}} or {{lang|no|dvergskott}} which refer to an 'animal disease' and translate literally as '{{not a typo|dwarfshot}}'.{{sfn|Simek|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|dvergskott}}