Editing Constitution (section)

==Key features==
{{Multiple issues|{{Original research|section|date=September 2016}}{{More citations needed section|date=September 2016}}}}
[[File:Red copy of the Russian constitution.jpg|thumb|upright|[[President of Russia|Presidential]] copy of the [[Constitution of Russia|Russian Constitution]]]]

Most commonly, the term ''constitution'' refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a [[civil service]]/administration. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called "[[Basic Law]]".

===Classification===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Type !! Form !! Example
|-
| Codified || In single act (document) || Most of the world (first: [[Constitution of the United States|United States]])
|-
| rowspan=2 | Uncodified || Fully written (in few documents) || [[Constitution of San Marino|San Marino]], [[Basic Laws of Israel|Israel]], [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
|-
| Partially unwritten (see [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]) || [[List of Canadian constitutional documents|Canada]], [[Constitution of New Zealand|New Zealand]], [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
|}

A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten; see [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]].

====Codified constitution====
Most states in the world have codified constitutions.

Codified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a [[revolution]]. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. The legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adopted and some scholars have pointed out that high constitutional [[Wiki-constitutionalism|turnover]] within a given country may itself be detrimental to the separation of powers and the rule of law.

States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary [[statute]] law. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ''ultra vires'' by a court and struck down as [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]]. In addition, exceptional procedures are often required to [[constitutional amendment|amend a constitution]]. These procedures may include: the convocation of a special [[constituent assembly]] or constitutional convention, requiring a [[supermajority]] of legislators' votes, approval in two terms of [[parliament]], the consent of regional legislatures, a [[referendum]] process, and/or other procedures that make amending a constitution more difficult than passing a simple law.

Constitutions may also provide that their [[Entrenched clause|most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment]]. In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called ''unconstitutional constitutional law''.

Codified constitutions normally consist of a ceremonial [[preamble]], which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions. The preamble, which is omitted in some constitutions, may contain a [[Constitutional references to God|reference to God]] and/or to fundamental values of the state such as [[liberty]], [[democracy]] or [[human rights]]. In ethnic nation-states such as [[Estonia]], the mission of the state can be defined as preserving a specific nation, language and culture.

====Uncodified constitution====
{{Main|Uncodified constitution}}

[[File:Magna Carta (British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106).jpg|thumb|[[Magna Carta]]]]
{{As of|2017}} only two sovereign states, [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]], have wholly uncodified constitutions. The [[Basic Laws of Israel]] have since 1950 been intended to be the basis for a constitution, but as of 2017 it had not been drafted. The various Laws are considered to have precedence over other laws, and give the procedure by which they can be amended, typically by a simple majority of members of the Knesset (parliament).<ref name=lawsintro>{{cite web|title=Basic Laws – Introduction|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod.htm|website=The Knesset|date=2016|access-date=7 May 2017}} Article gives information on the procedures for amending each of the Basic Laws of Israel.</ref>

Uncodified constitutions are the product of an "evolution" of laws and conventions over centuries (such as in the [[Westminster System]] that developed in Britain). By contrast to codified constitutions, uncodified constitutions include both written sources – e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament – and unwritten sources – [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional conventions]], observation of [[precedent]]s, [[royal prerogative]]s, [[convention (norm)|customs]] and traditions, such as holding general elections on Thursdays; together these constitute [[British constitutional law]].

====Mixed constitutions====
Some constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified. For example, in the [[Constitution of Australia]], most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]], as adopted by the Commonwealth in the [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942]], and the [[Australia Act 1986]] means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} It means the Constitution of Australia is uncodified,{{dubious|date=July 2020}} it also contains [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional conventions]], thus is partially unwritten.

The [[Constitution of Canada]] resulted from the passage of several [[British North America Acts]] from 1867 to the [[Canada Act 1982]], the act that formally severed British Parliament's ability to amend the Canadian constitution. The Canadian constitution includes specific legislative acts as mentioned in section 52(2) of the [[Constitution Act, 1982]]. However, some documents not explicitly listed in section 52(2) are also considered constitutional documents in Canada, entrenched via reference; such as the [[Proclamation of 1763]]. Although Canada's constitution includes [[List of Canadian constitutional documents|a number of different statutes, amendments, and references]], some constitutional rules that exist in Canada are derived from unwritten sources and constitutional conventions.

The terms ''written constitution'' and ''codified constitution'' are often used interchangeably, as are ''unwritten constitution'' and ''uncodified constitution'', although this usage is technically inaccurate. A codified constitution is a single document; states that do not have such a document have uncodified, but not entirely unwritten, constitutions, since much of an uncodified constitution is usually written in laws such as the [[Basic Laws of Israel]] and the [[Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949|Parliament Acts]] of the United Kingdom. Uncodified constitutions largely lack protection against amendment by the government of the time. For example, the U.K. [[Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011]] legislated by simple majority for strictly [[Fixed-term election|fixed-term parliaments]]; until then the ruling party could call a general election at any convenient time up to the maximum term of five years. This change would require a constitutional amendment in most nations.

=== Amendments ===
{{Main|Constitutional amendment}}
[[File:Constitution of the United States, page 1.jpg|thumb|[[United States Constitution]]]]

A constitutional amendment is a modification of the constitution of a [[polity]], [[organization]] or other type of [[Legal entity|entity]]. Amendments are often interwoven into the relevant sections of an existing constitution, directly altering the text. Conversely, they can be appended to the constitution as supplemental additions ([[wikt:codicil|codicils]]), thus changing the frame of government without altering the existing text of the document.

Most constitutions require that amendments cannot be enacted unless they have passed a special procedure that is more stringent than that required of ordinary legislation.

==== Methods of amending ====
{| class="wikitable"
|+Procedures for amending national constitutions
!Approval by
![[Supermajority]] needed
!Countries
|-
| rowspan="9" |Legislature (unicameral, joint session or lower house only)
|>50% + >50% after an election
|Iceland, Sweden
|-
|>50% + 60% after an election
|Estonia, Greece
|-
|60% + >50% after an election
|Greece
|-
|60%
|France, Senegal, Slovakia
|-
|{{frac|2|3}}
|Afghanistan, Angola, Armenia, Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Djibouti, Ecuador, Honduras, Laos, Libya, Malawi, North Korea, North Macedonia, Norway, Palestine, Portugal, Qatar, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam, Yemen
|-
|>50% + |{{frac|2|3}} after an election
|Ukraine
|-
|2/3 + |{{frac|2|3}} after an election
|Belgium
|-
|3/4
|Bulgaria, Solomon Islands (in some cases)
|-
|4/5
|Estonia, Portugal (in the five years following the last amendment)
|-
| rowspan="9" |Legislature + referendum
|>50% + >50%
|Djibouti, Ecuador, Venezuela
|-
|>50% before and after an election + >50%
|Denmark
|-
|3/5 + >50%
|Russia, Turkey
|-
|2/3 + >50%
|Albania, Andorra, Armenia (some amendments), Egypt, Slovenia, Tunisia, Uganda, Yemen (some amendments), Zambia
|-
|2/3 + >60%
|Seychelles
|-
|3/4 + >50%
|Romania
|-
|3/4 + >50% of eligible voters
|Taiwan
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}}
|Namibia, Sierra Leone
|-
|75% + 75%
|Fiji
|-
| rowspan="2" |Legislature + sub-national legislatures
|{{frac|2|3}} + >50%
|Mexico
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}}
|Ethiopia
|-
| rowspan="4" |Lower house + upper house
||{{frac|2|3}} + >50%
|Poland, Bosnia and Herzegovina
|-
||{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}}
|Bahrain, Germany, India, Italy, Jordan, Namibia, Netherlands, Pakistan, Somalia, Zimbabwe
|-
|60% + 60%
|Brazil, Czech Republic
|-
|75% + 75%
|Kazakhstan
|-
|Lower house + upper house + joint session
|>50% + >50% + {{frac|2|3}}
|Gabon
|-
|Either house of legislature + joint session
|{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}}
|Haiti
|-
| rowspan="8" |Lower house + upper house + referendum
|>50% + >50% + >50%
|Algeria, France, Ireland, Italy
|-
|>50% + >50% + >50% (electors in majority of states/cantons)+ >50% (electors)
|Australia, Switzerland
|-
| 60% + 60% + >50% (optional)
|Spain (in most cases)<ref>"The Spanish Constitution and its reform" ''[https://blog.congreso.es/la-constitucion-y-su-reforma-ordinaria blog.congreso.es]''. Retrieved 28 August 2023.</ref>
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}} + >50%
|Japan, Romania, Zimbabwe (some cases)
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}} before and after an election + >50%
|Spain (in some cases)
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + >50% + |{{frac|2|3}}
|Antigua and Barbuda
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + >50% + >50%
|Poland (some cases)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of the Republic of Poland |url=https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm |access-date=2022-05-25 |website=www.sejm.gov.pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej |url=https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/polski/kon1.htm |access-date=2022-05-25 |website=www.sejm.gov.pl}}</ref>
|-
|75% + 75% + >50%
|Madagascar
|-
| rowspan="5" |Lower house + upper house + sub-national legislatures
|12/12
|Canada (in some cases)
|-
|>50% + >50% + {{frac|2|3}}
|Canada (in most cases)
|-
||{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}} + >50%
|India (in some cases)
|-
||{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}} + 75%
|United States
|-
|{{frac|2|3}} + {{frac|2|3}} + 50%
|Ethiopia<ref>"Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia". ''Article 105,'' ''[https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5a84.html 21 August 1995]''. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Retrieved 28 August 2023.</ref>
|-
|Referendum
|>50%
|Estonia, Gabon, Kazakhstan, Malawi, Palau, Philippines, Senegal, Serbia (in some cases), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
|-
| rowspan="2" |Sub-national legislatures
||{{frac|2|3}}
|Russia
|-
|75%
|United States
|-
| rowspan="2" |Constitutional convention
|
|Argentina
|-
|{{frac|2|3}}
|Bulgaria (some amendments)
|}
''Some countries are listed under more than one method because alternative procedures may be used.''

==== Entrenched clauses ====
{{Main|Entrenched clause}}
An entrenched clause or entrenchment clause of a [[basic law]] or constitution is a provision that makes certain amendments either more difficult or impossible to pass, making such amendments inadmissible. Overriding an entrenched clause may require a [[supermajority]], a [[referendum]], or the consent of the minority party. For example, the U.S. Constitution has an entrenched clause that [[Article Five of the United States Constitution#Constitutional clauses shielded from amendment|prohibits abolishing equal suffrage of the States within the Senate without their consent]]. The term eternity clause is used in a similar manner in the constitutions of the [[Constitution of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]],<ref name="CECEE">{{cite book|author=Kyriaki Topidi and Alexander H.E. Morawa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhLKZKm7zGgC&pg=PA105|title=Constitutional Evolution in Central and Eastern Europe (Studies in Modern Law and Policy)|year=2010|isbn=978-1409403272|page=105| publisher=Ashgate Publishing }}</ref> [[Constitution of Germany|Germany]], [[Constitution of Turkey|Turkey]], [[Constitution of Greece|Greece]],<ref>[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf The official English language translation of the Greek Constitution as of May 27, 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114142907/http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf |date=November 14, 2017 }}, Article 110 §1, p. 124, source: Hellenic Parliament, "The provisions of the Constitution shall be subject to revision with the exception of those which determine the form of government as a Parliamentary Republic and those of articles 2 paragraph 1, 4 paragraphs 1, 4 and 7 , 5 paragraphs 1 and 3, 13 paragraph 1, and 26."</ref> [[Constitution of Italy|Italy]],<ref name="weakcon">{{cite book|author=Joel Colón-Ríos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TqqQAzH2zxEC&pg=PA67|title=Weak Constitutionalism: Democratic Legitimacy and the Question of Constituent Power (Routledge Research in Constitutional Law|year=2012|isbn=978-0415671903|page=67| publisher=Routledge }}</ref> [[Constitution of Morocco|Morocco]],<ref name="EWC">{{cite book|author=Gerhard Robbers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3A-xgf1yM4C&pg=PA626|title=Encyclopedia of World Constitutions|year=2006|isbn=978-0816060788|page=626| publisher=Facts On File, Incorporated }}</ref> [[Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran|the Islamic Republic of Iran]], [[Constitution of Brazil|Brazil]] and [[Constitution of Norway|Norway]].<ref name="weakcon" /> [[Constitution of India|India's constitution]] does not contain specific provisions on entrenched clauses but the [[basic structure doctrine]] makes it impossible for certain basic features of the Constitution to be altered or destroyed by the [[Parliament of India]] through an [[amendment of the Constitution of India|amendment]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://hindu.com/2004/09/26/stories/2004092600491600.htm|title=The basic features|date=2004-09-26|access-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725005100/http://hindu.com/2004/09/26/stories/2004092600491600.htm|archive-date=2012-07-25|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Colombian Constitution of 1991|Constitution of Colombia]] also lacks explicit entrenched clauses, but has a similar substantive limit on amending its fundamental principles through judicial interpretations.<ref name="weakcon" />

=== Constitutional rights and duties ===
{{Main|Constitutional right}}
Constitutions include various rights and duties. These include the following:
* Duty to pay [[tax]]es<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Duty to pay taxes" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=taxes&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Conscription|Duty to serve in the military]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Duty to serve in the military" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=milserv&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Duty to work<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Duty to work" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=work&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Suffrage|Right to vote]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Claim of universal suffrage" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=voteun&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of assembly]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Freedom of assembly" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=assem&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of association]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Freedom of association" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=assoc&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of speech|Freedom of expression]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Freedom of expression" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=express&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of movement]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Freedom of movement" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=freemove&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of thought]]<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|title=Read about "Freedom of opinion/thought/conscience" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=opinion&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of the press]]<ref name="auto1"/>
* [[Freedom of religion]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Freedom of religion" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=freerel&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to dignity<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Human dignity" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=dignity&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to civil marriage<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Provision for civil marriage" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=civmar&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Right to petition]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right of petition" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=petition&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to [[academic freedom]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to academic freedom" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=acfree&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to [[Conscientious objector|conscientious objection]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to conscientious objection" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=nomil&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to a [[Right to a fair trial|fair trial]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to fair trial" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=fairtri&status=in_force&status=is_draft|access-date=2020-10-21|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Right to [[personal development]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to development of personality" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=devlpers&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to start a family<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to found a family" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=fndfam&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Freedom of information laws by country|Right to information]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to information" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=infoacc&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to marriage<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to marry" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=marriage&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Right of revolution]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to overthrow government" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=overthrw&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Right to privacy]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to privacy" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=privacy&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to protect one's reputation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to protect one's reputation" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=libel&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Right to [[Renunciation of citizenship|renounce citizenship]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Right to renounce citizenship" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=citren&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* [[Children's rights|Rights of children]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Rights of children" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=childpro&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>
* Rights of debtors<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Rights of debtors" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=debtors&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>

=== Separation of powers ===
{{Main|Separation of powers}}

Constitutions usually explicitly divide power between various branches of government. The standard model, described by the [[Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]], involves three branches of government: [[executive branch|executive]], [[legislature|legislative]] and [[judiciary|judicial]]. Some constitutions include additional branches, such as an [[audit|auditory branch]]. Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of separation of powers between these branches.

====Accountability====
In [[Presidential system|presidential]] and [[semi-presidential]] systems of government, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the [[President (government title)|president]], who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election.

In [[parliamentary]] systems, Cabinet Ministers are accountable to [[Parliament]], but it is the [[prime minister]] who appoints and dismisses them. In the case of the United Kingdom and other countries with a monarchy, it is the monarch who appoints and dismisses ministers, on the advice of the prime minister. In turn the prime minister will resign if the government loses the confidence of the parliament (or a part of it). Confidence can be lost if the government loses a [[vote of no confidence]] or, depending on the country,<ref>A synchronic comparative perspective were before the founding fathers of Italian Constitution, when they were faced with the question of bicameralism and related issues of confidence and the legislative procedure, {{cite journal|last1=Buonomo|first1=Giampiero|date=2013|title=Il bicameralismo tra due modelli mancati|url=https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89409110|journal=L'Ago e Il Filo Edizione Online|access-date=April 10, 2016|archive-date=March 24, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324160801/https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89409110|url-status=dead}}</ref> loses a particularly important vote in parliament, such as vote on the budget. When a government loses confidence, it stays in office until a new government is formed; something which normally but not necessarily required the holding of a general election.

==== Other independent institutions ====
Other independent institutions which some constitutions have set out include a [[central bank]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Central bank" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=bank&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> an [[List of anti-corruption agencies|anti-corruption commission]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Counter corruption commission" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=cc&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> an [[Election commission|electoral commission]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Electoral commission" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=ecom&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> a judicial oversight body,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Establishment of judicial council" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=jc&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> a [[human rights commission]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Human rights commission" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=hr&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> a media commission,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Media commission" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=medcom&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> an [[ombudsman]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Ombudsman" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=ombuds&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref> and a [[truth and reconciliation commission]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Read about "Truth and reconciliation commission" on Constitute|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/search?lang=en&key=truthcom&status=in_force&status=is_draft|website=www.constituteproject.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>

=== Power structure ===

Constitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty according to the degree of centralisation of power: unitary, federal, and confederal. The distinction is not absolute.

In a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the state itself, and the constitution determines this. The territory of the state may be divided into regions, but they are not sovereign and are subordinate to the state. In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of [[Parliamentary sovereignty]] dictates that sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. Some powers have been [[devolution|devolved]] to [[Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland]], and [[Wales]] (but not [[England]]). Some unitary states ([[Spain]] is an example) devolve more and more power to sub-national governments until the state functions in practice much like a federal state.

A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called ''states'', ''provinces'', etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).

A confederal state comprises again several regions, but the central structure has only limited coordinating power, and sovereignty is located in the regions. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called "confederal" states are actually federal.

To some extent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by [[treaty|treaties]] and accords give up parts of their sovereignty to a [[Supranational union|supranational]] entity. For example, the countries constituting the [[European Union]] have agreed to abide by some Union-wide measures which restrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the [[metric system of measurement]] instead of national units previously used.

=== State of emergency ===
{{Main|State of emergency}}
Many constitutions allow the declaration under exceptional circumstances of some form of state of emergency during which some rights and guarantees are suspended. This provision can be and has been abused to allow a government to suppress dissent without regard for human rights&nbsp;– see the article on [[state of emergency]].

===Facade constitutions===
{{See also|Constitutionalism}}
Italian political theorist [[Giovanni Sartori]] noted the existence of national constitutions which are a facade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for [[human rights]] or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened, or never put into practice. An extreme example was the [[Constitution of the Soviet Union]] that on paper supported [[freedom of assembly]] and [[freedom of speech]]; however, citizens who transgressed unwritten limits were summarily [[Political prisoner|imprisoned]]. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are ultimately provided not through its written terms but through deference by government and society to its principles. A constitution may change from being real to a facade and back again as democratic and autocratic governments succeed each other.